How Do Psychologists Ask & Answer Questions? Psychology 7e in Modules

Theory A Theory is an… If we were to observe that depressed people talk about their past, present, and future in a gloomy manner, we may theorize that low-self-esteem contributes to depression. Psychology 7e in Modules

Hypothesis A Hypothesis is a…

Research Process

Case Study A technique in which… OBJECTIVE 5| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of case studies in studying behavior and mental processes. Psychology 7e in Modules

Survey A technique for… OBJECTIVE 6| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of surveys in studying behavior and mental processes, and explain the importance of wording effects and random sampling. Psychology 7e in Modules

Problems with surveys Wording Effects: Order: Scales: False Consensus Effect: Embarassment:

Survey Random Sampling If each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sample (unbiased). If the survey sample is biased, its results are not valid. The fastest way to know about the marble color ratio is to blindly transfer a few into a smaller jar and count them.

Naturalistic Observation OBJECTIVE 7| Identify the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation in studying behavior and mental processes. Psychology 7e in Modules

(positive or negative) Correlation When one trait or behavior accompanies another, we say… Indicates strength of relationship (0.00 to 1.00) Correlation coefficient r = + 0.37 OBJECTIVE 8| Describe positive and negative correlations and explain how correlational measures can aid the process of prediction. Correlation Coefficient is a statistical measure… Indicates direction of relationship (positive or negative) Psychology 7e in Modules

Scatterplot is a graph comprised… Scatterplots Perfect positive correlation (+1.00) Scatterplot is a graph comprised…

Scatterplots Perfect negative correlation (-1.00) No relationship (0.00) The Scatterplot on the left shows a ________correlation, while the one on the right shows _______________________ the two variables.

Correlation and Causation Correlation does not mean causation! or Psychology 7e in Modules

Illusory Correlation The perception of a relationship where… Confirming evidence Disconfirming evidence Do not adopt Adopt Do not conceive Conceive OBJECTIVE 10| Describe how people form illusory correlations. Psychology 7e in Modules

Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns. Order in Random Events Given random data, we look for order and meaningful patterns. Psychology 7e in Modules

Exploring Cause and Effect Experimentation Exploring Cause and Effect Like other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychology research. Experiments isolate… OBJECTIVE 12| Explain how experiments help researchers isolate cause and effect. Psychology 7e in Modules

Many factors influence our behavior Many factors influence our behavior. Experiments (1) manipulate factors that interest us, while other factors are kept under (2) control. Effects generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationships.

An Independent Variable is a … OBJECTIVE 14| Explain the difference between an independent variable and a dependent variable. Psychology 7e in Modules

A Dependent Variable is a…

A summary of steps during experimentation.

Double-blind Procedure Random Assignment Double-blind Procedure Sometime research participants out of enthusiasm or personal beliefs can affect the out come of an experiment. To control for such affects, a double-blind procedure is used, in which the participants and the experimenter’s assistants are not aware of which participants got real treatment and who got placebo. Psychology 7e in Modules

Below is a comparison of different research methods.

Statistical Reasoning Statistical procedures analyze and interpret data allowing us to see what the unaided eye misses. OBJECTIVE 15| Explain the importance of statistical principles, and give an example of their use in daily life. Psychology 7e in Modules

Describing Data A meaningful description of data is important in research. Misrepresentation may lead to incorrect conclusions. OBJECTIVE 16| Explain how graphs can misrepresent data. Psychology 7e in Modules

Measures of Central Tendency Mode: Mean: Median: OBJECTIVE 17| Describe three measures of central tendency and tell which is most affected by extreme scores. Psychology 7e in Modules

Measures of Central Tendency A Skewed Distribution

Measures of Variation Range: Standard Deviation: OBJECTIVE 18| Explain two measures of variation. Psychology 7e in Modules

Standard Deviation

A statistical statement of… Making Inferences A statistical statement of… Psychology 7e in Modules

When is an Observed Difference Reliable? Making Inferences When is an Observed Difference Reliable? 1. 2. 3. OBJECTIVE 19| Identify three principles for making generalizations from samples. Psychology 7e in Modules

When is a Difference Significant? Making Inferences When is a Difference Significant? OBJECTIVE 20| Explain how psychologists decide whether differences are meaningful. Psychology 7e in Modules