Foundations of Philosophy

Philosophy is: A search for meaning and truth The general beliefs and attitudes of an individual or group The body of principles underlying a branch of learning or major discipline

Original Definition “Love of Wisdom” Definition was developed by Socrates

Three Major Areas of Philosophy Metaphysics/Ontology - the nature of reality Axiology (Morality & Ethics) deontology, behavior, & the nature of values Epistemology - the nature of knowledge

Metaphysics/Ontology Concerned with theories of the nature of reality: Why does the universe exist? How did it come into being? Is mankind free? Is there a God? What is reality?

Axiology concerned with theories of value Three major divisions of axiology: deontology/morality What is right and wrong? What is good and evil? ethics What is right behavior? aesthetics What is beautiful and ugly?

Epistemology Concerned with theories of the nature of knowledge Epistemological questions: What is “Knowledge?” How do people learn? What knowledge is of utmost value? What are the different types of knowledge?

Philosophical Schools of Thought Idealism Realism Pragmatism Existentialism Reconstructionism

Idealism

Idealism (Idea-ism) Idealist believe that ideas are the only true reality. The material world is characterized by change, instability, and uncertainty; some ideas are enduring

Idealism We should be concerned primarily with the search for truth. Since truth is perfect and eternal, it cannot be found in the world of matter that is both imperfect and constantly changing.

The Dialectic (Hegel) Antithesis “War is bad” Thesis “War is good” Synthesis

Leaders of Idealism Socrates (469-399 BC) Plato (427-347 BC) St. Augustine (350-430) Descartes (1596-1650) Berkeley (1685-1753) Kant (1724-1804)

Socrates Regarded as the father of philosophy Believed we learned through questioning (the Socratic method) Wrote nothing, what we know of his views were written by his followers, most notably Plato

Plato A student of Socrates Known as the father of idealism Operated a school named the “Academy” Believed the world is a pale shadow of the Platonic Sphere

Plato Those who demonstrate proficiency in the dialectic would continue their education and become philosophers in positions of power to lead the state toward the highest good (the Philosopher-King) Believed both boys and girls should be educated and girls should be equals.

Augustine (354-430) Born in North Africa (Roman citizen) Mother - Christian, Father - Pagan Attended Roman Primary School grammar and literature emphasized At 16 went to Carthage and studied: rhetoric, music, geometry, grammar, mathematics During his younger days “He lied, he stole, he wenched.”

Augustine. . . Became a grammaticus in his native town Taught rhetoric in Carthage, Rome, Milan While in his 30’s was converted to Christianity, took his holy orders and became a great evangelist and priest. Found great favor in the church and became a great religious leader.

Augustine People do not create knowledge; God has already created it, but people can discover it through trying to find God.

Augustine’s Beliefs Women were held in low regard (this view was incorporated into the church and held for a thousand years) Only a few people possessed the mental ability to quest for the truth. Therefore most people should rely on the church for knowledge.

Augustine’s Beliefs Augustine used Greek writings but began to have doubts how people who did not know God could write anything which could be of value to Christians. In 401 the Church outlawed pagan writings such as Plato and Aristotle (even the church leaders were not allowed to read the ancient literature). This continued for 1000 years.

The Church and Idealism Idealism has exerted a great amount of influence on Christianity. For centuries the Christian church was the creator and protector of schooling. Generations educated in these schools were indoctrinated with the idealist point of view (including early American education).

Descartes (1596-1650) A renown mathematician Wrestled with the question of what was real and did he really exist (perhaps he was a dream). He finally concluded: “I think, therefore I am” Thinking and ideas are the ultimate truth.

George Berkeley (1685-1753) Existence is dependent upon some mind to know it, and if there are no minds, nothing would exist unless it is perceived in the mind of God.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) “…the greatest and most difficult problem to which a man can devote himself is the problem of education…” Education should teach students how to think according to principles - moral laws, moral ideals and moral imperatives Enlightenment is the goal of education

The Idealist and the Chair To an idealist, the concept of “chair” is important. You could destroy all the chairs in the world but they would still exist in the mind. The idea of a chair is the ultimate truth.

Realism

Realism Reality, knowledge and value exist independent of the human mind. Trees, sticks and stones exist whether or not there is a human mind to perceive them. Ideas must be subject to public verification must be proven through scientific experimentation “Science for the sake of science”

Realism Universal properties of objects remain constant and never change, whereas particular components do change Need to study nature systematically Deductive reasoning - truth is derived from generalizations Earth is the center of the universe

Leaders of Realism Aristotle (384-322 BC) Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) Francis Bacon (1561-1626) John Locke (1632-1704)

Aristotle (384-322 BC) Ideas may be important but a proper study of matter could lead us to better and more distinct ideas. Golden Mean - a path between extremes Balance is key - body and mind operate together in a balanced whole

Aquinas (1225-1274) God created matter; therefore it must be ok to learn about it This view helped lead civilization out of the dark ages, replaced the influence of Augustine

Aquinas Truth was passed from God to Humans by divine revelation, but God also has endowed humans with the reasoning ability to seek out truth.

Bacon (1561-1626) Novum Organum - challenged Aristotelian logic Science must be concerned with inquiry, pure and simple with no preconceived notions We need to examine all previously accepted knowledge

Bacon (1561-1626) Need to rid our mind of “idols” Idol of the Den - we believe things because of limited experience Idol of the Tribe - we believe things because many people believe them Idol of the Marketplace - we are misled by language Idol of the Theatre - Religion and philosophy may prevent us from seeing the world objectively

Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626) Known as the father of inductive reasoning --important logical form (arrive at generalizations from systematic observations of particulars) Died as a result of the only experiment he performed - stuffed a dead chicken with snow to see if it would preserve the flesh, caught a cold and died

John Locke (1632-1704) At birth, the mind is a blank sheet of paper - a ‘tabula rasa’ All ideas are derived from experience by way of sensation and reflection

The Realist and the Chair To a realist, the actuality of “chair” is important. A realist would measure the chair, weigh it, examine the physical characteristics, etc. The fact that the chair exists is the ultimate truth.

Pragmatism

Pragmatism The root of the word Pragmatism is a Greek word meaning “work”. It is primarily a 20th century philosophy developed by Americans. Truth is what works in the real world. We must keep the desired end in mind. Ideas should be applied to solving problems; including social problems.

Leaders in Pragmatism Auguste Comte, 1798-1857 Not a pragmatist but emphasized using science to solve social problems

Leaders in Pragmatism Charles Darwin, 1809-1882 Reality is not found in Being, but in Becoming Reality is open-ended, in process, with no fixed end.

American Pragmatists Charles Sanders Pierce, 1839-1914 Widely acknowledged as the father of pragmatism Wrote an article on “How to make our Ideas Clear” in Popular Science Monthly that is regarded as the basis for pragmatism. True knowledge of anything depends upon verification of our ideas in actual experience

American Pragmatists William James, 1842-1910 The truth of an idea is its “workability” Truth is not absolute and immutable; rather it is made in actual, real-life James called his philosophy “radical empiricism” James’s 1907 book “Pragmatism” did much to promote pragmatism. Rufus Stimson, a leader in agricultural education, studied under James.

American Pragmatists John Dewey, 1859-1952 Need to concentrate on real-life problems Sought practical solutions for practical problems How We Think Felt Difficulty Define the problem Formulate possible solutions Examine & Evaluate possible solutions Accept or reject solutions

The Pragmatist and the Chair To a pragmatist, the use of the “chair” is important. What is the purpose of the chair and does it fulfil that purpose? The “workability” of a chair is the ultimate truth.

Reconstructionism

Reconstructionism Society is in need of constant reconstruction Such social change involves both a reconstruction of education and the use of education in reconstructing society Problems are viewed holistically Futuristic thinking (utopian thinking)

Reconstructionism Do not believe preparing students for the world as it exists today will be sufficient (too much emphasis on the status quo)

Reconstuctionists want to: link thought with action theory with practice intellect with activism

Noted Reconstructionists George S. Counts Theodore Brameld Paole Freire Karl Marx Ivan Illich John Dewey (he is also recognized as a pragmatist)

The Reconstructionist and the Chair To a reconstructionist, the redesign of the “chair” to better serve the needs of society is important. How can the chair be improved to prepare society for the future?

Existentialism

Existentialism Received new emphasis in the 60s and 70s Civil rights Women rights Individual rights Special needs

Existentialism Traditional philosophies consider questions about the nature of knowledge, truth and meaning but: Existentialists are concerned with how these things are significant within the lived experiences of individuals.

Noted Existentialists Soren Kierkegaard Martin Heidigger Martin Buber Jean-Paul Sartre Fredrich Neitzche

The Existentialist and the Chair To an existentialist, the individuals use of “chair” is important. Whatever the individual wants to do with the chair is important. The experience of the individual with the chair is the ultimate truth.

Match the philosophy to the image Idealism Realism Pragmatism Reconstructionism Existentialism