The Transformation of Europe Chapter 24 The Transformation of Europe

The Protestant Reformation Martin Luther (1483-1546) attacks Roman Catholic church practices, 1517 Indulgences: preferential pardons for charitable donors Writes Ninety-Five Theses, rapidly reproduced with new printing technology Excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1521 1520s-1530s dissent spread throughout Germany and Switzerland

Reformation Ideas Spread Martin Luther

The Demand for Reform Luther’s expanded critique Closure of monasteries Translations of Bible into vernacular End of priestly authority, especially the Pope Return to biblical text for authority German princes interested Opportunities for assertion of local control Support for reform spreads throughout Germany

Reform outside Germany Switzerland, Low Countries follow Germany England: King Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) has conflict with Pope over requested divorce England forms its own church by 1560 France: John Calvin (1509-1564) codifies Protestant teachings while in exile in Geneva Scotland, Netherlands, Hungary also experience reform movements

I spy an attractive lady – in-waiting called Talem Franco I spy an attractive lady – in-waiting called Talem Franco. If only I could marry her instead. Will the Pope give me a divorce? I need a son. I have been married for 20 years and my wife, Catherine of Aragon is too old to have any more children. Who will inherit my throne when I die? The Church is very rich. I need money for my luxurious court. If only I could get my hands on it. The new Protestant ideas are spreading in Germany. Princes there are reforming their churches and throwing out the Catholic Church. The Church takes money out my country in taxes to help build St Peter’s in Rome. What do I get in return? Some people in England like the new Protestant ideas. They believe that the Bible should be in English not Latin.

The Catholic Reformation Roman Catholic church reacts Refining doctrine, missionary activities to Protestants, attempt to renew spiritual activity Council of Trent (1545-1563) periodic meetings to discuss reform Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded by St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) Rigorous religious and secular education Effective missionaries

Witch Hunts Most prominent in regions of tension between Catholics and Protestants Late 15th century development in belief in Devil and human assistants 16th-17th centuries approximately 110,000 people put on trial, some 60,000 put to death Vast majority females, usually single, widowed Held accountable for crop failures, miscarriages, etc. New England: 234 witches tried, 36 hung

Religious Wars Protestants and Roman Catholics fight in France (1562-1598) 1588 Philip II of Spain attacks England to force return to Catholicism English destroy Spanish ships by sending flaming unmanned ships into the fleet Netherlands rebel against Spain, gain independence by 1610

The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1645) Holy Roman emperor attempts to force Bohemians to return to Roman Catholic Church All of Europe becomes involved in conflict Principal battleground: Germany Political, economic issues involved Approximately one-third of German population destroyed

The Consolidation of Sovereign States Emperor Charles V (r. 1519-1556) attempts to revive Holy Roman Empire as strong center of Europe Through marriage, political alliances Ultimately fails Protestant Reformation provides cover for local princes to assert greater independence Foreign opposition from France, Ottoman Empire Unlike China, India, Ottoman Empire, Europe does not develop as single empire, rather individual states Charles V abdicates to monastery in Spain

Europe in 1559 on Page 723 Bentley 4e

The New Monarchs Italy well-developed as economic power through trade, manufacturing, finance Yet England, France, and Spain surge ahead in 16th century, innovative new tax revenues England: Henry VIII Fines and fees for royal services; confiscated monastic holdings France: Louis XI, Francis I New taxes on sales, salt trade

The Spanish Inquisition Founded by Fernando and Isabel in 1478 Original task: search for secret Christian practitioners of Judaism or Islam, later search for Protestants Spread to Spanish holdings outside Iberian peninsula in western hemisphere Imprisonment, executions Intimidated nobles who might have considered Protestantism Archbishop of Toledo imprisoned 1559-1576

Constitutional States England and Netherlands develop institutions of popular representation England: constitutional monarchy Netherlands: republic English Civil War, 1642-1649 Begins with opposition to royal taxes Religious elements: Anglican church favors complex ritual, complex church hierarchy, opposed by Calvinist Puritans King Charles I and parliamentary armies clash King loses, is beheaded in 1649

Royalists (Cavaliers) Parliamentarians (Roundheads) Civil War (1642-1649) Royalists (Cavaliers) Parliamentarians (Roundheads) House of Lords N & W England Aristocracy Large landowners Church officials More rural House of Commons S & E England Puritans Merchants Townspeople More urban

Regicide  Beheading of Charles I, 1649 The vote by the Rump Parliament was 68-67.

The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) Puritans take over, becomes a dictatorship Monarchy restored in 1660, fighting resumes Resolution with bloodless coup called Glorious Revolution King James II deposed, daughter Mary and husband William of Orange take throne Shared governance between crown and parliament

The “Glorious” Revolution: 1688 Whig & Tory leaders offered the throne jointly to James II’s daughter Mary [raised a Protestant] & her husband, William of Orange. He was a vigorous enemy of Louis XIV. He was seen as a champion of the Protestant cause.

English Bill of Rights [1689] It settled all of the major issues between King & Parliament. It served as a model for the U. S. Bill of Rights. It also formed a base for the steady expansion of civil liberties in the 18c and early 19c in England.

English Bill of Rights [1689] Main provisions: The King could not suspend the operation of laws. The King could not interfere with the ordinary course of justice. No taxes levied or standard army maintained in peacetime without Parliament’s consent. Freedom of speech in Parliament. Sessions of Parliament would be held frequently. Subjects had the right of bail, petition, and freedom from excessive fines and cruel and unusual punishment. The monarch must be a Protestant. Freedom from arbitrary arrest. Censorship of the press was dropped. Religious toleration.

3 Events in England, 1603 – 1689

The Dutch Republic King Philip II of Spain attempts to suppress Calvinists in Netherlands, 1566 Large-scale rebellion follows, by 1581 Netherlands declares independence Based on a representative parliamentary system

Absolute Monarchies Theory of Divine Right of Kings French absolutism designed by Cardinal Richelieu (under King Louis XIII, 1624-1642) Destroyed castles of nobles, crushed aristocratic conspiracies Built bureaucracy to bolster royal power base Ruthlessly attacked Calvinists

Louis XIV (The “Sun King,” 1643-1715) L’état, c’est moi: “The State – that’s me.” Magnificent palace at Versailles, 1670s, becomes his court Largest building in Europe 1,400 fountains 25,000 fully grown trees transplanted Power centered in court, important nobles pressured to maintain presence

Absolutism in Russia: The Romanov Dynasty (1613-1917) Peter I (“the Great,” r. 1682-1725) Worked to modernize Russia on western European model Developed modern Russian army, reformed Russian government bureaucracy, demanded changes in fashion: beards forbidden Built new capital at St. Petersburg Catherine II (“the Great”, r. 1762-1796) Huge military expansion Partitions of Poland, 1772-1797 Social reforms at first, but end with Pugachev peasant rebellion (1773-1774)

5 Expansion of Russia, 1689 – 1796

The European States System No imperial authority to mediate regional disputes Peace of Westphalia (1648) after Thirty Years’ War European states to be recognized as sovereign and equal Religious, other domestic affairs protected Warfare continues: opposition to French expansion, Seven Years’ War Balance of Power tenuous Innovations in military technology proceed rapidly

Europe after the Peace of Westphalia, 1648

Population Growth and Urbanization Rapidly growing population due to Columbian Exchange Improved nutrition Role of the potato (considered an aphrodisiac in 16th and 17th centuries) Replaces bread as staple of diet Better nutrition reduces susceptibility to plague Epidemic disease becomes insignificant for overall population decline by mid-17th century

Population Growth in Europe

Urbanization

Early Capitalism Private parties offer goods and services on a free market Own means of production Private initiative, not government control Supply and demand determines prices Banks, stock exchanges develop in early modern period Joint-Stock Companies (English East India Company, VOC) Relationship with empire-building Medieval guilds discarded in favor of “putting-out” system

Impact of Capitalism on the Social Order Rural life Improved access to manufactured goods Increasing opportunities in urban centers begins depletion of the rural population Inefficient institution of serfdom abandoned in western Europe, retained in Russia until 19th century Nuclear families replace extended families Gender changes as women enter income-earning work force

Capitalism and Morality Adam Smith (1723-1790) argued that capitalism would ultimately improve society as a whole But major social change increases poverty in some sectors Rise in crime Witch-hunting a possible consequence of capitalist tensions and gender roles

Adam Smith (1723-1790) Appointed to the chair of logic in 1751 at the University of Glasgow, Scotland. In 1752 he transferred to the chair of philosophy. On his travels to France, he was influenced by the writings of the physiocrats. 1776  The Theory of Moral Sentiments and an Inquiry Into the Nature of Causes of the Wealth of Nations was published. A vehement attack of the mercantilist system.

The Wealth of Nations (1776)

Adam Smith’s Attack on Mercantilism He was making a political argument, NOT an economic one. Part of the argument was for new economic policy, but.. An essential part of the argument was for new social and political arrangements. He argued that the basic unit for social analysis should be the nation, not the state. He was against the belief that trade was a zero-sum game It was a positive-sum game. Both nations gained.

Basic Capitalist Principles Goods and services are produced for profitable exchange. Human labor power is a commodity for sale  LABOR IS THE SOURCE OF VALUE. Goods & Service Businesses Households Consumer Spending Wages Labor & Investments

Basic Capitalist Principles The “Invisible Hand” of the market Problem  How do we survive in a world where we must depend on many others, but where humans are by nature self-interested individuals?? Solution  the free market, while appearing chaotic and unrestrained, is actually guided to produce the right amount and variety of goods by a so-called “invisible hand.” Therefore, the basic market mechanism is self-regulating!

Basic Capitalist Principles Individuals seeking success are driven by self-interest  Profit Motive The Law of Supply and Demand Individuals who are free to pursue their self-interest will produce goods and services that others want, at prices others will be willing to pay.

Basic Capitalist Principles Law of Competition The competitive market system compels producers to be increasingly efficient, and to respond to the desires of consumers. A social division of labor will maximize the satisfaction of individual wants and needs, given scarce resources. Government should interfere minimally with the free and efficient workings of the market Laissez faire [“Leave things alone.”]

There, there it is again—the invisible hand of the marketplace giving us the finger.

The Copernican Universe Reconception of the Universe Reliance on 2nd-century Greek scholar Claudius Ptolemy of Alexandria Motionless earth inside nine concentric spheres Christians understand heaven as last sphere Difficulty reconciling model with observed planetary movement 1543 Nicholas Copernicus of Poland breaks theory Notion of moving Earth challenges Christian doctrine

The Scientific Revolution Johannes Kepler (Germany, 1571-1630) and Galileo Galilei (Italy, 1564-1642) reinforce Copernican model Isaac Newton (1642-1727) revolutionizes study of physics Rigorous challenge to church doctrines

The Enlightenment Trend away from Aristotelian philosophy and Church doctrine in favor of rational thought and scientific analysis John Locke (England, 1632-1704), Baron de Montesquieu (France, 1689-1755) attempt to discover natural laws of politics Center of Enlightenment: France, philosophes Voltaire (1694-1778), caustic attacks on Roman Catholic church: écrasez l’infame, “erase the infamy” Deism increasingly popular

The Theory of Progress Assumption that Enlightenment thought would ultimately lead to human harmony, material wealth Decline in authority of traditional organized religion