Africa and the Atlantic World Below decks on an illegal slave ship seized by a British antislavery patrol in 1846.

African states, 1500-1650 African states, 1500-1650

The States of West Africa and East Africa Developed over 8th-16th centuries All gained wealth from Gold/Salt trade Kingdom of Ghana Major Gold Trader Mali Empire, 13th century Sundiata, Mansa Musa Songhay Empire, 15th century Sunni Ali (r. 1464-1493) created effective army, navy Muslim, mosques, built schools to teach Quran, university at Timbuktu Musket-bearing Moroccan army destroys Songhay forces, regional city-states exert local control Timbuktu, the commercial and cultural center of Mali and Songhay, as sketched in 1828 by French traveler. Though long in decline, the city’s mosques, mud-brick dwellings, and crowds of people bespeak a prosperous community.

Swahili Decline in East Africa Portuguese Vasco da Gama skirmishes with Africans on eastern coast, 1497-1498 2nd voyage, 1502 returns, forces Kilwa to pay tribute By 1505 Portuguese gun ships dominate Swahili ports Swahili city-states never recover Great Mosque at Kilwa

The Kingdom of Kongo Modern-day Republic of Congo/Angola Relations with Portuguese beginning 1483 w/ kingdom of Kongo Supply advisors, military support to protect Portuguese interests, tailors, shoemakers, masons, priests etc King Nzinga Mbemba or King Afonso I, r. 1506-1542 Converts to Christianity Useful connection with Portuguese interests So many churches during the 16th c. called “Kongo of the Bell” Coat of arms issued to Afonso I

An engraving depicts São Salvador in Angola in the late seventeenth century. A flag flies over the royal palace while the Portuguese citadel (to the right of the palace) guards the city. Churches appear at the center and on the far right side of the engraving. 

The King of Kongo and European Ambassadors The kings of Kongo retained their Christian faith even after their relations with European merchants and missionaries became strained in the seventeenth century. Here, King Garcia II—with European-style boots and a cross attached to his left sleeve—receives a Dutch embassy in 1642. 

Slave Raiding in Kongo Initial Portuguese attempts at slave raiding Soon discovered it is easier to trade weapons for slaves provided by African traders Dealt with several authorities besides Kongo Some of their allies were enemies of Kongo king Kongo kings appeal without success to slow, but not eliminate, slave trade Relations deteriorate, Portuguese attack Kongo and decapitate king in 1665 Improved slave market develops in the south w/ kingdom of Ndongo

Armed escorts march a group of freshly captured Africans to the coast for sale on slave markets. Chained together are African men, women, and children. Why would some African peoples enslave other Africans? 

The Kingdom of Ndongo (Angola) Ndongo gains wealth by means of Portuguese slave trade Portugal found small colony in 1575 for the trade Portuguese influence was resisted by Queen Nzinga (r. 1623-1663) Insisted being called King Dressed as male warrior when leading troops into battle Posed as male King, with male concubines in female dress attending her Nzinga establishes temporary alliance with Dutch in unsuccessful attempt to expel Portuguese Decline of Ndongo power after her death Queen Nzinga, produced by European engravers who dubbed her “Anna Singa or Schmga”. She fought the Portuguese in Angola.

Regional Kingdoms in South Africa Great Zimbabwe Cape Town, South Africa Chieftans develop trade with Swahili city-states Gold, ivory, and slaves 1300: Great Zimbabwe Dutch build Cape Town in 1652, increased involvement with southern African politics Encounter Khoikhoi people Hottentots”, use them for labor British colonies also develop Will become the most prosperous European colony of sub-Saharan AFrica

Islam in Sub-Saharan Africa Popular in commercial centers of sub-Sahara Timbuktu becomes major center of Islamic scholarship by 16th century Syncretic brand of Islam African traditions and beliefs blended into Islam Spirit and magic Gender relations: men and women associated together Standards of female modesty

Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Antonian Movement Also syncretic with African beliefs Antonian movement flourishes early 18th century Founded by Doña Beatriz, claims possession by St. Anthony of Padua (13th century Franciscan preacher, patron saint of Portugal) Promotes distinctly African Christianity Jesus a black man, Kongo the holy land, heaven for Africans Christian missionaries persuade King Pedro IV of Kongo to burn her at the stake Despite this it continues

Social Change in Early Modern Africa Kinship groups and clans still important Trade with Europeans brings new goods to Africa They had produced textiles and steel for centuries but now European goods popularized New crops from Americas Manioc also known as Cassava becomes staple bread flour Maize and peanuts also Supplements bananas, yams, rice Increased food supply boosts population growth despite slave trade

Manioc (cassava) output in 2005

Population Growth in Africa

Foundations of the Slave Trade African slavery dates to antiquity War captives, criminals, people expelled from clans Distinct from Asian, European slavery No private property, therefore wealth defined by human labor potential, not land Slaves were private investment and means of measuring wealth If you control large # of individuals who harvest more crops, than you accumulate more wealth Purchase many slaves to enlarge families and power Slaves often assimilated into owner’s clan

The Islamic Slave Trade Expansion of slave trade with Arab traders New slaves acquired by raiding villages, selling on Swahili coast Arab traders depend on African infrastructure to maintain supply European demand on west coast causes demand to rise again Well under way

Arab Slave Trader

The Early Slave Trade Portuguese raid west African coast in 1441, take 12 men Raiding met with stiff resistance Africans armed w/ poison-tipped arrows African dealers ready to provide slaves 1460: 500 slaves per year sold to work as miners, porters, domestic servants in Spain and Portugal 1520: 2,000 per year to work in sugarcane plantations in the Americas

Sugar Plantation In an engraving of 1667, a European supervisor (lower right) directs slaves on a sugar plantation in Barbados as they haul cane, crush it to extract its juice, boil it to produce molasses, and distill the product into rum. 

Slaves at Work in a Mine

The Triangular Trade 1. European manufactured goods (especially firearms), sent to Africa 2. African slaves purchased and sent to Caribbean and Americas Sold 2x-3x more than bought (remember DBQ) 3. Cash crops purchased in Americas and returned to Europe Sugar, molasses

Brutal Slave Trade Inhumane at every stage Capture was violent Chieftains organize raiding parties Bewilderment and anger as they are taken from family

The Middle Passage (Africa-Americas) African slaves captured by raiding parties, force-marched to holding pens at coast Middle passage under horrific conditions 4-6 weeks Mortality initially high, often over 50%, eventually declined to 5% Over course of the Atlantic Slave Trade 25% die Total slave traffic, 15th-18th c.: 12 million Approximately 4 million die before arrival

African Slave Export per Year

Impact on African Regions Rwanda, Bugunda, Masai, Turkana resist slave trade Interior of Africa away Benefit from distance from slave ports on western coast Other societies benefit from slave trade profit Asante, Dahomey, Oyo peoples Gained firearms to build powerful states and bitter when it ended Hurt them in 19th century

Social Effects of Slave trade Total African population expands due to importation of American crops Remember “Manioc” also known as “cassava” Yet millions of captured Africans removed from society, deplete regional populations Area from Senegal to Angola vulnerable Distorted sex ratios result 2/3 of slaves male, 14-35 years of age Angola-2/3s of population were women Encouraged polygamy: more than 1 wife

Political Effects of Slave Trade Introduction of firearms increases violence of pre-existing conflicts More weapons = more slaves; more slaves = more weapons Dahomey people create army dedicated to slave trade

African Slaves in Plantation Societies Most slaves in tropical and subtropical regions First plantation established in Hispaniola (Haiti, Dominican Republic) 1516 Later Mexico, Brazil, Caribbean and Americas Sugar major cash crop Later: tobacco, rice, indigo, cotton, coffee Plantations heavily dependent on slave labor Racial divisions of labor

Destinations of African Slaves

Regional Differences Caribbean, South America: African population unable to maintain numbers through natural means Malaria, yellow fever Brutal working conditions, sanitation, nutrition Gender imbalance Constant importation of slaves North America: less disease, more normal sex ratio Slave families encouraged as prices rise in 18th century

Resistance to Slavery Half-hearted work effort Sabotage equipment or work routines Flight (Maroon populations) Lived in forests, mountains, or swampy regions Revolts

Slave Revolts Only one successful revolt French-controlled St.-Domingue (1793) Declare independence from France and abolish slavery Renamed Haiti Establish self-governing republic in 1804 Elsewhere, revolts outgunned by Euro-American firepower

African-American Culture Diversity of African cultures concentrated in slave population Blend of cultures African languages when numbers permit, otherwise European language adapted with African influences Creole languages (African+European) “Gullah” and “Geechee” here in coastal SC Ex. “Kumbayah” = “Come by here” Christianity adapted to incorporate African traditions

The Abolition of Slavery Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797), former slave authors best-selling autobiography Eloquent attacks on institution of slavery Economic costs of slavery increase Military expenses to prevent rebellions 18th century: price of sugar falls, price of slaves rises Wage labor becomes more efficient Wage-earners can spend income on manufactured goods

End of the Slave Trade Denmark abolishes slave trade in 1803, followed by Great Britain (1807), United States (1808), France (1814), Netherlands (1817), Spain (1845) Possession of slaves remains legal Clandestine trade continues to 1867 Emancipation of slaves begins with British colonies (1833), then French (1848), U.S. (1865), Brazil (1888) Saudi Arabia and Angola continue to the 1960s