Gender, Sex, and Sexuality Chapter 11 Section 2-5 Theories of Gender Development

Biological Approaches Biological factors such as genes, gonads, and hormones are linked with a person’s biological sex and their eventual psychological feelings of gender. Research done on infants attending to a face or mobile (toy) demonstrated differences in gender such that female babies spent more time looking at the face, while male infants spent more time observing the toy. This suggests these differences to be biologically ingrained, as these children have not yet had social experiences to influence gender development.

Evolutionary psychology views the biological differences between the sexes through the lens of natural selection and adaptation. Sexual selection means that the male and female members of a species differ from each other because of difference in competition and choice. Competition occurs among members of the same sex, thus members of the opposite sex exercise choice—selecting the lucky one (or ones). The sex that invests the most in producing offspring is the one that chooses, and the other sex is the one that competes.

Sexual Selection Women are the sex that give birth, and as such ought to do the choosing. Men show characteristics that are thought to be well suited for competing (i.e. physical size). Sexual selection is more complicated in humans than any other species, as sometimes men get to be choosers and women are the competitors vying for men who are likely to invest in their children.

Reproductive Challenges for Men and Women Women can reproduce only about once a year and have limited time of fertility, thus women must choose sexual partners of high quality. Comparatively, men can focus on quantity as they are typically fertile from puberty through the rest of life. However, due to the helplessness of infants it is adaptive for men to invest in their offspring. One challenge is that men may not be certain whether a child whom he is investing in is genetically his. To combat this challenge, evolutionary psychologists point out that across cultures, men are more likely to prefer women who are younger than they are, being more interested in physical appearance (thought to represent health and fertility).

Social Cognitive Approaches Social Cognitive approaches focus on how children learn about gender and how they occupy a gender identity. Gender is learned through rewards and punishments, observational learning, and modeling. Children may also be rewarded for engaging in gender-conforming behavior and punished for engaging in behavior that does not fit with expectations for their sex, called gender-nonconforming behavior. Social and cultural factors have a strong influence on the development of gender identity.

Social Role Theory Eagly’s perspective includes that men and women are physically different (tributes to the evolutionary perspective), and that these differences resulted in a division of labor between the sexes with women being more involved in the home and with child rearing and men being more likely to work outside the home. This creates the idea of gender roles— a social construct for how females and males should think, act, and feel. Gender roles are related to gender stereotypes which are overly general beliefs and expectations about what men and women are like.

Evaluating the Theoretical Approaches to Gender The most comprehensive view of gender and its origin takes into account all of these theories. Each theory plays a role in its application and explanation of gender identity and the importance of taking all theories into account to help psychologists understand such a complex construct.

Chapter 11 Section 3 The Psychology of Gender Differences Research on cognitive abilities shows no differences between men and women in general intellectual ability. And, girls tend to perform better in school than boys. Women tend to score higher on verbal ability tasks; whereas, boys tend to outperform girls on tasks related to visuospatial ability.

Gender Differences Cognitive Differences math and science? verbal performance (female advantage) visuospatial ability (male advantage) general intelligence (no advantage) Differences due to: - social expectations and support v. evolved roles - gender similarities hypothesis

Gender Differences Differences in Aggression overt aggression (physical/verbal harm) - males more than females relational aggression (harm social standing) - females more than males why the difference? testosterone? evolutionary pressures? socialization?

Gender Differences Differences in Sexuality Explanations: females more selective in regards to casual sex males more often aroused, stronger sex drive, less fidelity women more likely to engage in bisexuality or be aroused by bisexual stimuli Explanations: biological - genetic/hormonal differences evolutionary - sexual selection social cognitive - learned behavior social role - culturally constructed

Sexual Orientation …direction of erotic interests - refers to more than just sexual behavior Orientations: - heterosexual (90% of population) - homosexual - bisexual

Gay and Lesbian Functioning Relationships report greater satisfaction than heterosexuals more likely to end relationships than heterosexuals Families less likely to have children children of gay couples have not shown differences from other children

Sexual Behavior What constitutes sexual behavior? infidelity or loss of virginity activities involved in reproduction arousal and sexual response unusually intimate and personal activity as defined by the participants

Sexual Behavior Kinsey’s (1948) research Alfred Kinsey brought scientific attention to sexual behavior. He published The Kinsey Reports, which reported the following: bisexuality was more frequent than thought, and 50 percent of married men had been sexually unfaithful. are most people promiscuous or faithful? 50 percent of married men had been sexually unfaithful. does marriage decrease sexual activity? Married couples reported having sex more frequently than other categories of couples. what percentage of the population are virgins? 10% M 8% W how often do we have sex (on average)? See chart for that one! who masturbates the most?

Sexual Response Pattern Human Sexual Response Pattern excitement plateau orgasm resolution/male refractory period

Sexual Cognition Cognitive factors in sexual behavior self-monitoring and self-regulation fantasy and imagery sexual scripts

Influences on Sexuality Influence of Culture Inis Beag (Off coast of Ireland)-Taught that sex took too much energy, quick & at night Mangaia (South Pacific)-Taught to enjoy and how to at early age! Sex Education abstinence-only v. comprehensive

Sexual Variations & Disorders Fetishes-An object or activity that arouses sexual desire. Paraphilias- Sexually arousing fantasies or urges. Pedophilia- An adult or older adolescent fantasizes about or engages in sexual behavior with someone who has not reached puberty. disorders of sexual desire/response female dysfunction in arousal erectile dysfunction, premature ejaculation

Sexuality and Health and Wellness Sexually Transmitted Infections bacterial: gonorrhea, syphilis viruses: genital herpes, HIV Safe Sex abstinence 100% effective risk reduction with condom use Psychological Well-Being sexual activity is predictor of satisfaction in relationships IM: Positive Emotions and Illness Activity IM: Activity Handout 10.3: How They Felt After 9/11