Emotion and Motivation Chapter 8 Emotion and Motivation Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 What Is Emotion? Emotion – A four-part process consisting of physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation, subjective feelings, and behavioral expression. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Plutchik’s Emotion Wheel Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Advanced Emotion Composed of... Advanced Opposite Optimism Anticipation + Joy Disappointment Love Joy + Acceptance Remorse Submission Acceptance + Fear Contempt Awe Fear + Surprise Aggressiveness Surprise + Sadness Sadness + Disgust Disgust + Anger Anger + Anticipation Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

What Do Our Emotions Do For Us? Emotions have evolved to help us respond to important situations and to convey our intentions to others. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Evolution of Emotions Emotions have survival value and have been shaped by natural selection. Individuals vary tremendously in emotional responsiveness. Emotions are not entirely programmed by genetics. Nature vs Nurture Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Universal Emotions People everywhere can recognize at least seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise. -Paul Ekman There are, however, huge cultural differences in the context and intensity of emotional displays. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Emotional Expression Display rules – Permissible ways of displaying emotions in a particular society. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Where Do Our Emotions Come From? The discovery of two distinct brain pathways for emotional arousal has clarified the connections among the many biological structures involved in emotion and has offered solutions to many of the long-standing issues in the psychology of emotion. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Neuroscience of Emotion The biological mechanisms at work behind our emotions include: The limbic system The reticular formation The cerebral cortex The autonomic nervous system Hormones Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Theories of Emotion James-Lange theory– An emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion. Cannon-Bard theory – An emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Theories of Emotion Two-factor theory of emotion – Emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both (1) physical arousal and (2) emotion provoking stimulus. - Schachter-Singer Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 James-Lange theory Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Stimulus snake Emotion fear Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Emotion fear Cannon-Bard theory Stimulus snake Cognitive interpretation “I feel afraid!” Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate Two-factor theory Emotion fear Stimulus snake Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Theories of Emotion Cognitive appraisal theory – Theory that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event. Opponent-process theory – Theory that emotions have pairs; when one is triggered the other is suppressed. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Basic Emotion Basic Opposite Joy Sadness Acceptance Disgust Fear Anger Surprise Anticipation Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Arousal & Performance Inverted “U” function – Describes the relationship between arousal and performance; both low and high levels of arousal produce lower performance than does a moderate level of arousal. Performance Low High Arousal Level Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Arousal & Performance Sensation seekers – Individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Much Control Do We Have Over Our Emotions? Although emotional responses are not always consciously regulated, we can learn to control them. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Developing Emotional Intelligence Emotional intelligence – Ability to understand and control emotional responses. Emotional control can be achieved by learning. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

People can control their emotions to deceive! Detecting Deception People can control their emotions to deceive! How to Detect a Lie Facial expressions are easier to control than bodily actions! Body Language Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Detecting Deception Do “lie detectors” really work? Polygraph – Device that records the graphs of many measures of physical arousal; often called a “lie detector” but really an arousal detector. How Lie Detectors Legally Work Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 ANGER An emotion characterized by antagonism toward someone or something you feel has deliberately done you wrong.  Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 ANGER Anger is often associated with violence. Only 10% of angry people show aggression. Anger can have a positive effect. There is no clinical category for a person who has high levels of anger. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do? Motivation takes many forms, but all involve inferred mental processes that select and direct our behavior. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Motivation: What Makes Us Act as We Do? Motivation – All processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivation connects observable behavior to internal states. Motivation accounts for variability in behavior. Motivation explains perseverance despite adversity. Motives relate biology to behavior. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motivation Drive – Biologically instigated motivation (hunger, thirst). Motive – Internal mechanism that directs behavior (often used to describe motivations that are learned, rather than biologically based). Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Intrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake. Extrinsic motivation – Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence (e.g. a reward). Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Types of Motivation Conscious motivation – Having the desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire. Unconscious motivation – Having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

5 Theories of Motivation 1. Instinct Theory 2. Drive Theory 3. Cognitive Theory 4. Psychodynamic Theory 5. Humanistic Theory Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Instinct Theory Instinct theory – View that certain behaviors are determined by innate factors. Fixed-action patterns – Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Drive Theory Drive theory – View that a biological need (an imbalance that threatens survival) produces drive. (Drive-reduction theory) Homeostasis – The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Cognitive Theory Cognitive theory – View that many of our motives depend more on learning and thinking than on biological drives or instincts. Locus of control – An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences originate–internally or externally. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory Psychodynamic theory – Freud’s view that motivation comes mainly from the depths of the unconscious mind. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Maslow’s Humanistic Theory Hierarchy of needs – The notion that needs occur in priority order, with the biological needs as the most basic. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch Motivation Overjustification – The process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How Are Achievement, Hunger, and Sex Alike? Different? No single theory accounts for all forms of motivation, because each motive involves its own mix of biological, mental, behavioral, and social/cultural influences. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Measuring the Need for Achievement Projection – Process by which people attribute their own unconscious motives to other people or objects. Need for achievement (n Ach) – Mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or reach some goal. - TAT Turn to page 326 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

A Cross-Cultural Perspective on Achievement Individualism – View that places a high value on individual achievement and distinction. - United States, Canada, Western Europe Collectivism – View that values group loyalty and pride over individual distinction. - Asia, Africa, Middle East Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Why do we eat? Hunger Motivation People don’t eat only because they need food. Many factors, both biological and environmental, influence hunger. These factors interact with one another in many ways. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Hunger Motivation The multiple-systems approach to hunger Lateral hypothalamus Set point Pressure detectors in stomach Preference for sweet and fatty foods Physical activity Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Multiple - Systems Approach Lateral hypothalamus (LH) The LH tells you when to start eating. The ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) tells you when to stop eating. Set point Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Multiple - Systems Approach Pressure detectors in stomach Signal fullness or emptiness Preference for sweet and fatty foods Calorie dense foods enabled our ancestors to survive when food was unpredictable Physical activity Extreme exercise provokes hunger *Weight control is a complex issue with no simple answers* Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Hunger Motivation Anorexia nervosa Eating disorder characterized by a fear of gaining weight that results in prolonged self-starvation and dramatic weight loss. Bulimia nervosa Eating disorder characterized by compulsive overeating usually followed by self-induced vomiting or abuse of laxatives. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Scientific Study of Sexuality Kinsey interviewed 17,000 Americans concerning their sexual behavior. Masters and Johnson Sexual response cycle – Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women (page 332). Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sexual Response Cycle Excitement– blood vessels change in the pelvic region. Plateau – a maximal level of arousal is reached. Orgasm – release from the cumulative sexual tension. Resolution – the body returns to its preexcitment state. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Phases of Human Sexual Response Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sexual Motivation Sexual scripts – Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations. Both learning and genetics affect our sexual behaviors. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Sexual Motivation Sexual orientation – One’s attraction toward members of the same sex, the opposite sex, or both sexes. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motives in Conflict Approach-approach conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options. OR Approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision to be made. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Motives in Conflict Avoidance-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between two equally unattractive options. OR Multiple approach-avoidance conflict – A conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

How and Why Do We Experience Stress? The human stress response to perceived threat activates thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and physiological arousal that normally promote adaptation and survival. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Stress and Stressors Stress – A physical and mental response to a challenging or threatening situation. Stressor – A stressful stimulus, a condition demanding adaptation. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 A Model of Stress Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Traumatic Stressors Traumatic stressor – A situation that threatens one’s physical safety, arousing feelings of fear, horror, or helplessness. Catastrophe – Sudden, violent calamities (natural disasters, terrorist attacks, warfare) Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 PTSD Posttraumatic stress disorder – Delayed stress reaction in which an individual involuntarily re-experiences emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects of past trauma. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Physical Stress Response Initial arousal Protective behavioral reaction (fight/flight) Internal responses of the ANS Decrease in effectiveness of the immune system Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Physical Stress Response Acute stress – A temporary pattern of arousal caused by a stressor with a clear onset and offset. Chronic stress – A continuous state of stressful arousal persisting over time. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Physical Stress Response Fight-or-flight response – A sequence of internal processes that prepares the organism for struggle or escape. Tend-and-befriend model – Stress response model proposing that females are biologically predisposed to respond to stress by nurturing and protecting offspring and seeking social support. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The Physical Stress Response General adaptation syndrome (GAS) – A pattern of general physical responses that takes essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor. The Physical Stress Response Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

The General Adaptation Syndrome Alarm Reaction Alarm reaction – the body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor Exhaustion Illness/death Exhaustion – the body depletes it’s resources Resistance Resistance – the body seems to adapt to the presence of the stressor Successful Resistance Level of normal resistance Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Stress and the Immune System Immune system – Bodily organs and responses that protect the body from foreign substances and threats. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Stress and the Immune System Psychoneuroimmunology – Multidisciplinary field that studies the influence of mental states on the immune system. Cytokines – Hormone-like chemicals facilitating communication between brain and immune system. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Personality and Stress Type A – Behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations. Type B – Behavior pattern characterized by a relaxed, unstressed approach to life. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Responses to Stress Learned helplessness – Pattern of not responding to noxious stimuli after an organism learns that its behavior has no effect. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Psychological Responses to Stress Resilience – Capacity to adapt, achieve well-being, and cope with stress, in spite of serious threats to development. Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 End of Chapter 8 Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007