Chapter 8 “Thinking, Language and Intelligence” Cognitive Psychology How we acquire knowledge about the world How we think, form concepts, use language, process information, solve problems Not considered appropriate for study in psychology until 1960’s Thinking The mental representation and manipulation of information Solving problems, making decisions, engaging in creativity Mental Images We represent information in the mind Representations are images, words, or concepts Mental image Mental picture (representation) of an object or event A reconstruction of the object or event from memory

Uses similar parts of visual cortex as those for actually seeing the object Advantage is mental representation can be manipulated – allows for many cognitive tasks Gender differences in mental imagery abilities Women – more vivid imager, better representation of still objects Men – greater use in problem solving; better at visualizing moving objects Concepts Mental categories used to group objects, events, and ideas Categorization based upon common features or properties Types of concepts Logical concepts – clearly defined rules for membership Natural concepts Include objects (such as fruit), activities, and abstractions Rules for membership understood and applied, but less clear Membership for category based on probability that item fits

Hierarchies of concepts – ordered from broad to narrow Superordinate – broadest category (e.g. building, plant) Basic-level Most frequently used concepts category Examples are house (in building category), flower (in plant category) Basic – level concepts probably provide most useful information Subordinate Very specific regarding features Examples are iris and craftsmen style house Understanding of concepts refined through use Positive instance – concept is exemplified Negative instance – experience does not fit concept

Problem Solving A cognitive process – mental strategies are used to solve problems Previously discussed methods are insight, trial and error Useful problem – solving strategies Algorithms Step-by-step set of rules for solving a problem None may apply specifically to given problem Heuristics A rule of thumb that aids in problem solving and decision making Backward-working heuristic – start from solution and see if it fits problem Means-end heuristic – compare current situation and desired end result; create steps to connect or resolve difference Creating sub goals heuristics – divide objective into smaller units and solve each individually Analogies Use and apply knowledge from similar problems solved in the past Passage of time may actually help in seeing problem clearly

Mental Roadblocks to problem solving Mental set Relying on strategies that worked well in previous situations May lead to quick solution to current problem Hinders ability to find solution when prior method not effective Functional fixedness – inability to see how familiar objects can be used in new ways Irrelevant information – attending to this distracts from truly relevant factors

Mental roadblocks in decision making Decision making – problem solving where one course of action is selected from among alternative Examples of decision making roadblocks Confirmation bias- sticking to initial approach despite evidence that does not support (preference is to confirm existing belief, ignore facts that might necessitate reconsideration) Representaitiveness heuristic – assuming given sample is like all other cases; no true basis for believing this is so Availability heuristics – basing decision on information that most readily comes to mind Framing – decisions are made based on how alternatives are described

Creativity Thinking that leads to original, practical, meaningful solutions Thinking that generates new ideas or artistic expressions Everyone has the potential for creativity; some show more than others Creativity associated with higher levels of intelligence Most intelligent not necessarily more creative; creativity extends beyond intelligence Measuring creativity Variety of tests Most typically measure divergent thinking (finding new ways to view situations or objects) Convergent thinking: interested in finding one correct solution Cognitive processes that underlie creative thinking Metaphor and analogy Metaphor – one object or concept that us seen as like another Analogy – comparing two things having similar properties

Conceptual combination – uniting two or more concepts into one novel result Conceptual expansion – extending a familiar concept to novel application Language A system of communication composed of symbols Symbols are arranged according to a grammar Grammar – a set of rules governing the proper use of words, phrases, and sentences to express meaning Components of Language Phonemes – basic units of sounds in a language Morphemes Formed by combinations of phonemes Smallest units of meaning in language Include simple words (care, ball) but also prefixes and suffixes Syntax – rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered in a sentence (or phrase) to form meaningful expressions Semantics – the set of rules governing the meaning of words

Language Development Children develop language in the same stages, at the same ages, universally Language acquisition in young children usually occurs very easily and naturally “language acquisition device – suggested by Chomsky; human is “rewired “ to acquire a language Both nature and nurture necessary to learn language Close relationship between language and thought Culture and Language Is the language one speaks related to how one thinks? Linguistic relativity hypothesis Proposes that language we use determines how we think Proposes that language we use determines how we perceive reality Research does not support this idea

Intelligence Difficult to define David Wechsler: “… the global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, and to deal effectively with the environment” May be multiple intelligences, or many indifferent forms of intelligence Alfred Binet (French) Commissioned (1904) by school officials in Paris to identify intellectually at-risk children Binet and Theodore Simon developed an intelligence test Test items scaled to what typical child of given age could do Mental age – age level of work a child could do

IQ (Intelligence Quotient – suggested by William Sten) Most widely used intelligence tests today: created by David Wechsler Developed for pre-school children, school age children and adults Test based on ideal that intelligence is a variety of abilities Score consists of a deviation IQ Test includes verbal and performance subtests Characteristics of Good Intelligence Tests Standardization Establishing norms by administering test to large numbers of people Sample must be representative of population to which it refers IQ score is based on difference from norm (comparison of your performance to a group of others) Mean (average score) is 100 2/3 of scores from general population range from 85-115 Uniform procedures must be followed when administering test

Reliability – consistency of rest scores over time Validity – when a test measures what it is supposed to Misuses of IQ test Parents and teachers may lose hope for a child with low score Children may give up on themselves Extremes of intelligence Intellectually Challenged IQ score of 70 or below Difficult in coping with age-appropriate tasks and life situations Mainstreaming – children with mild intellectual challenges are placed in regular classrooms Intellectual giftedness IQ of 130 or higher May benefit from enriched, faster-paced academic programs Category also includes musical, artistic ability Motivation always important to keep them going

Theories of Intelligence Spearman’s “g” Believed that there was a general factor of intelligence that allowed people to perform well on mental exams. Also supported the idea that there were specific areas of intelligence as well such as mathematics. Thurstone’s 7 Mental Abilities Didn’t support the idea of a general intelligence Primary Mental Abilities Verbal comprehension (understanding and making useful sense out of verbal information) Numerical ability (understanding and use of numbers) Memory (ability to store, retain and recall effectively) Inductive reasoning (going from the specific to the general) Perceptual speed (ability to think quickly) Verbal fluency (ability to find the right word at the right time) Spatial relations (ability to analyze and manipulate objects mentally)

Theories of Intelligence Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Linguistic intelligence ("word smart") Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart") Spatial intelligence ("picture smart") Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart") Musical intelligence ("music smart") Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart") Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart") Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Intelligence Is it Nature or Nurture?