Chapter 7 THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE Psychology Chapter 7 THINKING AND INTELLIGENCE PowerPoint Image Slideshow

Thinking The processing of information to solve problems and make judgments and decisions

Artificial vs. Natural Concepts Schema Thinking Concept vs. Prototype Artificial vs. Natural Concepts Schema

Blocks to Problem Solving Solution Strategies

A Problem A situation in which there is a goal, but it is not clear how to reach the goal A well-defined problem is one with clear specifications of the start state (where you are), goal state (where you want to be) and the processes for reaching the goal state (how to get there) An ill-defined problem is a problem lacking clear specification of the start state, goal state, or the processes for reaching the goal state

Interpreting the problem Trying to solve the problem Problem Solving Involves two steps... Interpreting the problem Trying to solve the problem

Blocks to Problem Solving Interpretation blocks Fixation is the inability to create a new interpretation of a problem For instance, in the 9-dot problem, the directions do not say one cannot go “outside” the mental square formed by the 9 dots

Blocks to Problem Solving Interpretation blocks Functional fixedness is the inability to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one For example, if you need a screwdriver but don’t have one, a dime could be used to serve the purpose of a screwdriver Limits our ability to solve problems that require using an object in a novel way To combat functional fixedness, you should systematically think about the possible novel uses of all the various objects in the problem environment

Blocks to Problem Solving Strategy blocks Our past experience with problem solving can lead us to mental set, the tendency to use previously successful solution strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem In the two-letter series problems, mental set likely hindered you because you viewed the letters in the series as single entities and looked for relationships between them, not each of the letters as part of some larger entity Sometimes when searching for new approaches to a problem, we may experience insight, a new way of interpreting a problem that immediately gives you the solution

Overcoming Blocks To combat the blocks in problems solving, ask yourself questions such as: Is my interpretations of the problem unnecessarily constraining possible solutions? Can I use any of the objects in the problem in novel ways to solve the problem? Do I need a new type of solution strategy?

Solution Strategies Algorithm Heuristic

Algorithm A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct answer to a problem For example, using multiplication correctly guarantees you the correct solution to a multiplication problem

Heuristic A solution strategy that seems reasonable given your past experiences with solving problems, especially similar problems May pay off with a quick correct answer, but it may lead to no answer or an incorrect one

Algorithms vs. Heuristics When going through a new grocery store looking for pickles, you could go up and down every aisle, examining each product until you found the pickles This would be using an algorithm Or, you could look at the signs above the aisles and look for the word “Condiments” and assume that pickles will be on that aisle This would be using a heuristic

Cognitive Biases

Intelligence Tests Controversies about Intelligence Intelligent Thinking Intelligence Tests Controversies about Intelligence

A Bit of History… First attempts to develop intelligence tests took place in late 19th century England and in early 20th century France Embedded in the nature-nurture controversy

Terman Lewis Terman at Stanford University used Binet and Simon’s test, after revising it for American school children In 1916, Terman’s revision became known as the Stanford- Binet, and Terman used the classic intelligence quotient formula by William Stern, a German psychologist IQ = (mental age/chronological age) X 100 Consequently, when a child’s mental age as assessed by the test was greater than the child’s chronological age, the child’s IQ was greater than 100 When a child’s mental age as assessed by the test was less than the child’s chronological age, the child’s IQ was less than 100 Note that the IQ formula itself is no longer used

Figure 7.15 The majority of people have an IQ score between 85 and 115.

Controversies About Intelligence General vs. Specific Nature vs. Nurture

Theories of Intelligence Charles Spearman argued that intelligence test performance is a function of two types of factors A g factor (general intelligence) Some s factor (specific intellectual abilities such as reasoning) Believed that the g factor was more important because people who did well on one subtest usually did well on most of the subtests, and people who did poorly on one subtest usually did poorly on most of the subtests

Theories of Intelligence Cattell and Horn proposed two types of intelligence, which have been of interest to researchers in aging Fluid intelligence refers to abstract reasoning, memory, and the speed of information processing Crystallized intelligence refers to accumulated knowledge and verbal and numerical skills

Theories of Intelligence Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences includes 8 independent types of intelligence Linguistic Language ability (e.g., reading, writing, speaking) Logical-Mathematical Mathematical problem solving & scientific analysis Spatial Reasoning about visual spatial relationships Musical Musical skills (e.g., the ability to compose and understand music) Bodily-Kinesthetic Skill in body movement and handling objects Intrapersonal Understanding oneself Interpersonal Understand other people Naturalist Ability to discern patterns in nature

Theories of Intelligence Robert Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence proposes three types of intelligence 1. Analytical intelligence is essentially what is measured by standard intelligence tests, the necessary skills for good academic performance 2. Practical intelligence could be equated with good common sense or “street smarts” 3. Creative intelligence is concerned with the ability to solve novel problems and deal with unusual situations

Nature vs. Nurture Most contemporary psychologists believe that both heredity (nature) and environmental experiences (nurture) are important in determining intelligence The disagreement is over the relative contribution of each part to intelligence

The Case for Nature Genetic similarity studies are important in determining the relative contribution of nature and nurture to intelligence Identical twins have 100% genetic similarity Fraternal twins and siblings have 50% similarity Two unrelated people have 0% similarity If intelligence were due to heredity, the average correlations between intelligence scores should decrease as genetic similarity decreases, and researchers have found this to be the case

The Case for Nurture However, there are also results that support environmental influences on intelligence For example, if identical twins are raised together, the correlation between their intelligence test scores is +0.86, but if the identical twins are raised apart, the correlation falls to +0.72

Both Nature and Nurture The average correlation between fraternal twins raised together (+0.60) is less than that for identical twins reared apart (+0.72), indicating the influence of heredity The average correlation is greater than that for ordinary siblings reared together (+0.47), indicating environmental influences because the environment influences of fraternal twins is more similar than for ordinary siblings at different ages

Both Nature and Nurture There is a modest correlation between the intelligence test scores of adopted children with their parents, and this correlation disappears as the children age The correlation between the scores for adopted children and their biological parents, however, increases as the children age This stronger relationship between a person’s intelligence and that of their biological parents means that nature plays a larger role in determining a person’s intelligence than environmental experiences

The Flynn Effect Refers to the fact that in the United States and other Western industrialized nations, average intelligence scores have improved steadily over the past century Proposed explanations involve many environmental factors such as better nutrition and more education

Learning Disabilities

Figure 7.17 These written words show variations of the word “teapot” as written by individuals with dyslexia.