Take out a piece of paper Name the Seven Dwarves

Difficulty of Task Was the exercise easy or difficult. It depends on what factors? Whether you like Disney movies how long ago you watched the movie how loud the people are around you when you are trying to remember

Now pick pick out the seven dwarves. Turn your paper over. Now pick pick out the seven dwarves. Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy

Seven Dwarves Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful

Did you do better on the first or second dwarf memory exercise? Recall v. Recognition With recall- you must retrieve the information from your memory (fill-in- the blank tests). With recognition- you must identify the target from possible targets (multiple-choice tests). Which is easier?

As you might have guessed, the next topic we are going to examine is……. Memory The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Information Processing The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short- term memory, and c) long-term memory. OBJECTIVE 2| Describe Atkinson-Schiffrin’s classic three-stage model of memory and explain how contemporary model of working memory differs. Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/ Corbis Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works

Problems with the Model Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. Since we cannot focus all the sensory information in the environment, we select information (through attention) that is important to us. The nature of short-term memory is more complex.

Types of Memory Sensory Memory: The immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system. Short-Term: Memory that holds a few items briefly The info will be stored into long-term or forgotten. Mr. Short Term Memory-SNL Long-Term Memory:The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. H.M Memory on NPR

The Memory process Crash Course Psychology #13 Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. Asking for a girl’s number at a party Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. Remembering her name when you call her Retrieval:The process of getting the information out of memory storage. Calling her by the wrong name

Two ways to encode information Automatic Processing Unconscious encoding of incidental information. You encode space, time and word meaning without effort. Things can become automatic with practice. For example, if I tell you that you are a jerk, you will encode the meaning of what I am saying to you without any effort. Effortful Processing Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. Rehearsal is the most common effortful processing technique. Through enough rehearsal, what was effortful becomes automatic.

Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition. Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

Rehearsal The more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on Day 2.

Take out a piece of paper and…. List the U.S. Presidents

The Presidents Washington Taylor Harrison Eisenhower J.Adams Fillmore Cleveland Kennedy Jefferson Pierce McKinley L.Johnson Madison Buchanan T.Roosevelt Nixon Monroe Lincoln Taft Ford JQ Adams A.Johnson Wilson Carter Jackson Grant Harding Reagan Van Buren Hayes Coolidge Bush Garfield Hoover Clinton Tyler Arthur FD.Roosevelt Bush Jr. Polk Truman Obama

Memory Effects Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so anxious about being next that you cannot remember what the person just before you in line says, but you can recall what other people around you say.  Spacing Effect: We retain information better when we rehearse over time. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items.

Serial Positioning Effect Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. Presidents Recalled If we graph an average person remembers presidential list- it would probably look something like this.

Encoding exercise Types of Encoding Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning, like the meaning of words Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.

Stephen Wiltshire draws NYC Visual Encoding Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding. OBJECTIVE 6| Explain how encoding imagery aids effortful processing, and describes some memory-enhancing strategies that use visual encoding. Both photos: Ho/AP Photo Stephen Wiltshire draws NYC

Mnemonics Crash Course Psychology #13 Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids. Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in aiding memory. "

Method of Loci List of Items Imagined Locations Charcoal Backyard Pens Bed Sheets Hammer . Rug Imagined Locations Backyard Study Bedroom Garage . Living Room

Link Method List of Items Newspaper Shaving cream Pen Umbrella . Lamp Involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.

Organizing Information for Encoding Break down complex information into broad concepts and further subdivide them into categories and subcategories. 1. Chunking-Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. Often it will occur automatically. Acronyms-HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior 2. Hierarchy-Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories. OBJECTIVE 7| Discuss the use of chunking and hierarchies in effortful processing.

Encoding Summarized in a Hierarchy

How we retain the information we encode Storage How we retain the information we encode

Storage: Retaining Information Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below: Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Encoding Events Encoding Retrieval Retrieval

Capacity M U T G I K T L R S Y P The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information (1956). Ready? M U T G I K T L R S Y P You should be able to recall 7±2 letters. George Miller

Storage and Short-Term Memory Lasts usually between 3 to 12 seconds. Can store 7 (plus or minus two) chunks of information. We recall digits better than letters.

Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows. OBJECTIVE 13| Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory, and identify the main brain structure associated with each.

How are the Memories Stored? Synaptic Changes Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) A long-lasting change in the structure or function of a synapse that increase the efficiency of neural transmission. Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller

Stress Hormones & Memory Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories. Hormones such as Epinephrine act on brain centers in the brain Extreme stress undermines learning and later recall How does this apply to an exam? OBJECTIVE 12| Discuss some ways stress hormones can affect memory.

Brain structures Hippocampus: turns STM into LTM The hippocampus (named after its resemblance to the seahorse, from the Greek hippos meaning "horse" and kampos meaning "sea monster")

Where Are Memories Stored?

Biological Forgetting Factors Damage to the Hippocampus Difficulty forming new memories Diminished in Alzheimer’s patients Neurotransmitters play a role Acetylcholine Alzheimer’s patients show low levels of this Decay theory Memories deteriorate because of the passage of time Distractor Studies – information fades from STM

How do we recall the information we thought we remembered? Retrieval How do we recall the information we thought we remembered? Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store. Lets Jog Our Memory!!!!!!!

Retrieval Cues Priming We often use a process called priming (the activation of associations in our memory) to help us retrieve information. Give out priming worksheet For the most part, the priming effect is considered involuntary and is most likely an unconscious phenomenon. The priming effect basically consists of repetition priming and semantic priming.

Retrieval Cues Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory. water smell hose Fire Truck fire OBJECTIVE 15| Explain how retrieval cues help us access stored memories, and describe the process of priming. smoke truck heat red

Repetition Priming 1. Repetition priming refers to the fact that it is easier (quicker) to recognize a face or word if you have recently seen that same face or word.

Semantic Priming 2. Semantic priming refers to the fact that it is easier (quicker) to recognize someone or word if you have just seen someone or a word closely associated.

Déja Vu Déja Vu means “I've experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience. © The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved

Forgetting

We cannot remember what we do not encode. Encoding Failure We cannot remember what we do not encode. OBJECTIVE 19| Discuss the role of encoding failure in forgetting.

Retrieval Failure Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).

Interference Learning some new information may disrupt retrieval of other information. OBJECTIVE 21| Contrast proactive and retroactive interference, and explain how they can cause retrieval failure.

Types of Retrieval Failure Proactive Interference The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information. If you call your new girlfriend your old girlfriend’s name.

Types of Retrieval Failure Retroactive Interference The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information. Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it leads to better recall. When you finally remember this years locker combination, you forget last year.

False Memories Elizabeth Loftus Repressed or Constructed? Some adults actually do forget childhood episodes of abuse, however much of what we remember is not repressed, just reconstructed.-See 40 Studies “Thanks for the Memories” False Memory Syndrome A condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience, which is sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists.

Improving Memory Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall. Spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material. Make material personally meaningful. Use mnemonic devices: associate with peg words — something already stored make up a story chunk — acronyms Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood. Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation. Minimize interference: Test your own knowledge. Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know. OBJECTIVE 28| Explain how an understanding of memory can contribute to effective study techniques.