Augustus Primaporta, Pax Romana (Roman CHAPTER 7 The Roman World Augustus Primaporta, Pax Romana (Roman The Roman World

ROMAN ART - AP Art History

Establishment of Rome Legend of Romulus and Remus Rome Founded 753 BCE Indo-European migrants c. 2000 BCE Bronze c. 1800 BCE, Iron c. 900 BCE

The Etruscans Originally from Anatolia Colonized Roman regions Society declines late 6th c. BCE Greek maritime attacks Celtic invasions from north

The Kingdom of Rome Monarchy through 7th-6th c. BCE Streets, temples, public buildings Major center of trade routes

Establishment of the Republic 509 BCE Romans overthrow last Etruscan king Roman forum built Republican constitution Executive: 2 consuls senate

Social Conflict Patricians (aristocrats) Plebeians (commoners) Major class conflict 5th c. BCE Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes for representation Rights expanded through 3rd c. BCE Yet 6-month appointments of dictators

controlled government SECTION 1 Founding the Roman Republic controlled government inherited power farmers / workers barred from office Patricians Plebeians majority barred from office landowners nobles

Expansion of the Republic Dominated Etruscans Took over iron industry 5th-4th c. BCE Expansion via military threat and incentives Tax exemptions Trade privileges Citizenship

The Punic Wars Conflict with Carthage, 264-164 BCE Three major wars over Sicilian grain supply Later conflict with declining Hellenistic Empires Rome dominates Mediterranean by middle of 2nd C. BCE

Imperial Expansion and Domestic Problems Land distribution Perennial problem Development of large latifundia Unfair competition for smaller landholders

The Roman Empire to 146 BCE

The Gracchi Brothers Tiberius and Gaius Attempted to limit land holdings of aristocrats Assassinated Development of private armies made up of landless peasants Gaius Marius (with reformers) Lucius Cornelius Sulla (with aristocrats)

The Birth of the Roman Empire SECTION 3 The Birth of the Roman Empire Gracchus brothers introduce reforms angry senators kill both Gracchus brothers violence = primary tool of Roman politics leaders recruit personal armies Sulla marches on Rome; civil war Sulla establishes dictatorship

Civil War 87 BCE Gaius Marius takes Rome Lucius Cornelius Sulla drives Marius out 83 BCE Reign of terror follows

Civil War The two most important generals were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla Marius sided with social reformers who favored redistribution of land Sulla sided with the conservative and aristocratic classes Marius Sulla

Julius Caesar Nephew of Marius Escapes Sulla’s terror Relatively young, well-timed trip abroad Rises to popularity Public spectacles, victories in Gaul Attacks Rome 49 BCE Names self Dictator for life in 46 BCE

Caesar’s Policies Centralized military, governance under personal control Redistribution of land to war veterans, other allies Major building projects reduce urban unemploymnent Extended citizenship to provinces Aristocrats threatened, assassinate Caesar in 44 BCE

Augustus Civil conflict follows death of Caesar Nephew Octavian fights Mark Antony & Cleopatra Takes title Augustus 27 BCE

Augustus’ Administration Monarchy disguised as a republic Increasing centralization of political, military power Stablilized empire Death in 14 CE

Rome Expands Its Borders Punic Wars Causes Results First Punic War Carthage was afraid Rome would take Sicily; Rome was afraid Carthage would close the Adriatic Sea and the Strait of Messina. Carthage asked for peace; had to pay indemnity and give up control of Sicily. Second Punic War Hannibal invaded Italy. Carthage asked for peace; paid an indemnity and lost the Spanish colonies. Third Punic War Some Romans passionately hated Carthage; Rome declared war. Carthage was destroyed.

Expansion and Integration of Empire Roman occupation of increasingly remote areas Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain Coordination of crop production, transport of natural resources Developed infrastructure, cities emerge

The Roman Empire, c. 117 CE

Pax Romana: “Roman Peace” Facilitated trade, communication Roadwork Curbs, drainage, milestones Postal service

Roman Law Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE Adapted to diverse populations under Roman Rule Innocent until proven guilty Right to challenge accusers in court

Commercial Agriculture and Trade Latifundia: production for export Regional specialization increases Integration of Empire-wide economy Mediterranean Sea: Mare Nostrum, “our sea”

The City of Rome Cash flow Massive construction projects Taxes, tribute, spoils, commerce Massive construction projects Statuary, monumental architecture, aqueducts Technology: concrete

Temple of Athena Nike Classical Greek Temple of Portunus Rome, Italy - ca. 75 BC

PARTHENON Greek PANTHEON Rome

The travertine columns are Corinthian Republic Rome Temple of “the Sibyl” or of “Vesta” Tivoli, Italy - early first century BC The Romans’ admiration for the Greek temples they encountered in their conquests also led to the importation of the round, or tholos, temple type. The travertine columns are Corinthian In contrast with Greek practice, the cell wall was constructed not of masonry blocks but of a new invention: concrete.

The Roman Architectural Revolution

Roman Attractions Imported goods Underground sewage Circus Maximus 250,000 spectators Colosseum Gladitorial Games

Family and Society Pater Familias: “father of the family” Right to arrange marriages, sell children into slavery Women not allowed to inherit property Rarely enforced

Roman Society and Culture stationed along frontiers soldiers made citizens kept peace Roman Army revised Twelve Tables provincial official Strong Empire encouraged widespread trade Government and Law Trade and Transportation strong emperor farm goods and luxury goods enforced law roads and bridges kept order

Pompeii & the Cities of Vesuvius Brawl in the Pompeii amphitheater Pompeii, Italy, ca. A.D. 60-79 This painting that is found on the wall of a Pompeian house depicts an incident that occurred in the amphitheater in A.D. 59. A brawl broke out between the Pompeians and their neighbors, the Nucerians, during a contest between the two towns. The fight left many wounded and led to a 10 year prohibition against such events. The painting shows the cloth awning (velarium) that could be rolled down from the top of the cavea to shield spectators from either sun or rain. It also has the distinctive external double staircases that enabled large numbers of people to enter and exit the cavea in an orderly fashion.

Pompeii & the Cities of Vesuvius Atrium of the House of the Vettii Pompeii, Italy, second century B.C., rebuilt A.D. 62-79 Pompeii & the Cities of Vesuvius One of the best preserved houses at Pompeii, partially rebuilt and an obligatory stop on every tourist’s itinerary today, is the House of the Vettii, an old Pompeian house remodeled and repainted after the earthquake of A.D. 62 The photograph was taken in the fauces. It shows the impluvium in the center of the atrium, the opening in the roof above, and in the background, the peristyle garden with its marble tables and mural paintings. The house was owned by two brothers, Aulus Vettius Restitutus and Aulus Vettius Conviva, probably freedmen who had made their fortune as merchants. Their wealth enabled them to purchase and furnished houses that would have been owned only by patricians.

Pompeii & the Cities of Vesuvius Dionysiac mystery frieze Pompeii, Italy, ca. 60-50 B.C.

Pompeii & the Cities of Vesuvius Dionysiac mystery frieze Pompeii, Italy, ca. 60-50 B.C. Especially striking is how some of the figures interact across the corners of the room. Nothing comparable to this existed in Hellenistic Greece. Despite the presence of Dionysos, satyrs, and other figures from Greek mythology, this is a Roman design.

Early Empire Boscoreale, Italy, decorated ca. 50-40 B.C. General view of wall paintings from Cubiculum M of the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor Boscoreale, Italy, decorated ca. 50-40 B.C. Early Empire In the early Second Style Dionysiac mystery frieze, the spatial illusionism is confined to the painted platform that projects into the room. This cubiculum is a prime example of mature Second Style designs in which painters created a 3-D setting that also extends beyond the wall. All around the room the painter opened up the walls with vistas of Italian towns and sacred sanctuaries. Painted doors and gates invite the viewer to walk through the wall into the created world. Their attempt at perspective was intuitive and it not conform to the “rules” of linear perspective that would later be discovered by the Renaissance masters. Although this painter was inconsistent in applying it, he demonstrated a interest in, but lacking knowledge of linear [single vanishing-point] perspective. It was most successfully employed in the far corners, where a low gate leads to a peristyle framing a tholos temple [see detail on next slide]. Intuitive perspective was a favored tool of Second Style painters seeking to transform the usually windowless walls of Roman houses into “picture-window” vistas that expanded the apparent space of the rooms.

Early Empire Boscoreale, Italy, ca. 50-40 B.C. Detail of tholos from Cubiculum M of the Villa of Publius Fannius Synistor Boscoreale, Italy, ca. 50-40 B.C. Early Empire Illusionism: The Second Style is, in most respects, the antithesis of the First Style. Some scholars have argued that the Second Style also has precedents in Greece, but most believe it is a Roman invention. The Second Style evolved in Italy around 80 B.C. and was popular until around 15 B.C., when the Third Style was introduced. Second Style painters aimed not to create the illusion of an elegant marble wall, as First Style painters sought to do. Rather, they wanted to dissolve a room’s confining walls and replace them with the illusion of an imaginary three-dimensional world, which they did only pictorially. The First Style’s modeled stucco panels gave way to the Second Style’s flat wall surfaces.

Republican Era /Early Empire Gardenscape - Villa of Livia Primaporta, Italy ca. 30-20 B.C. Republican Era /Early Empire Second Style picture-window wall Second Style painters favored linear perspective seeking to transform usually windowless walls of Roman houses into “picture-windows” vistas that expanded the apparent space of the rooms. Recession is suggested by atmospheric perspective, which creates the illusion of distance by the greater reduction of color intensity, the shift of color toward an almost neutral blue, and the blurring of contours as the intended distance between eye and object increases. - The flimsy fence is the only architectural element - The wall seems to frame the landscape - The fence, trees, and birds in the foreground are precisely painted, while the details of the dense foliage in the background are indistinct.

4th style wall painting in room 78 of the Domus Aurea (“golden house”) of Nero 64-48 A.D. 4th style, Rome, Italy In the Fourth Style the obsession with illusions returned once again. This style became popular around the time of the Pompein earthquake In the Golden House of Nero, where this mural is located, all the walls are a creamy white with landscapes and other motifs painted directly on the white walls. The paintings that are on the walls are “irrational fantasies” They depict fragments of buildings, columns supporting half pediments, double story columns supporting nothing at all. Architecture became just another motif in the artist’s design.

Herculanium, Italy Neptune and Amphitrite wall mosaic 62-79 A.D. The house of Neptune and Amphitrite takes its name from this mosaic. Shown here are Neptune, sea god, and his wife Amphitrite set into an elaborate niche. They preside over the running water of the fountain in the courtyard in front of them. Mosaics were usually confined to floors in the ancient world. In the Roman times, however, mosaics were used to decorate walls and even ceilings. This foreshadowed the extensive use of mosics in the Middle Ages. The subject chosen for Roman mosaics were diverse although mythological themes were immensily popular.

Pompeii and the Cities of Vesuvius Portrait of a husband and wife; Pompeii,Italy AD 70-79 Pompeii and the Cities of Vesuvius Originally formed part of a Fourth Style wall of an exedra, recessed area on the opening of the atrium of a Pompeian house. Standard attributes of Roman marriage portraits are displayed here with the man holding a scroll and the woman holding a stylus and a wax writing tablet. These portraits suggested high education even if it wasn’t true of the subjects. The heads are individualized to the subject’s features, not simply standard types. This is the equivalent of modern wedding photographs.

Pompeii and the Cities of Vesuvius Still life with peaches, detail from a wall painting; Heraculaneum, Italy; AD 62-79 Roman painters’ interest in the likeness of individual people was matched by their concern for recording the appearance of everyday objects. This still life demonstrates that Roman painters sought to create illusionistic effects while depicting small objects. Here they used light and shade with attention to shadows and highlights. The illusion created here is the furthest advance by ancient painters in representational technique. It appears that this artist understood that the look of things is a function of light. Also, the goal was to paint light as one would strive to paint the touchable object that reflects and absorbs it. This illusion of light marks the furthest advance by ancient painters in representational technique; it would not be seen again until the Dutch in the 1700’s. Still Life, Dutch ca. 1700

The Roman House

Wealth and Social Change Newly rich challenge aristocracy Yet poor class increasing in size Distraction: “Bread and Circuses”

Slavery 2nd c. CE: estimated at 1/3 of Empire population Customary manumission at age 30 Agricultural work, quarries, mines Chain labor Revolt under Spartacus, 73 BCE

Roman Deities Polytheistic Major gods Tutelary deities Absorption of gods from other cultures

Cicero and Stoicism Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-46 BCE) Major orator, writer Influenced by Greek thought Proponent of Stoicism

Spread of Christianity Acceptance and Organization SECTION 5 The Rise of Christianity Jesus Spread of Christianity Acceptance and Organization personally taught in Judaea gained followers crucified believed risen from dead disciples deliver message spreads slowly through empire outlawed by Romans Christians persecuted accepted by Romans, Constantine made official religion priests, bishops, patriarchs, pope church councils set down beliefs

Early Christian Communities Local leaders: Bishops Regional variation in doctrine and ritual Nature of resurrection Role of women Gradual acceptance of core texts

Growth of Early Christianity Roman persecution Yet dramatic expansion of Christianity Especially with dispossessed, disenfranchised classes Urban poor women

In old Greece as well as in ancient Rome, the most famous recipe was the “puls“ , a kind of spelt flat bread boiled and added with some milk or vegetables. The wheat was a cereal dating back to the Imperial epoch; common people would eat spelt, a kind of wheat richer in fibre and less useful to the bakery 58

Besides the “puls”, quite popular were the “lagane“ , a sort of “lasagna“, made with flour and water. The dough was able to be added with eggs or cheese, in this way it held out better to the boiling. 59

The Roman people liked fish very much, above all the anchovies The Roman people liked fish very much, above all the anchovies . The most famous Roman sauce, the “garum“, was made with anchovy meat. The Romans were very skilled at fish breeding. They built fish-tanks by the sea-shore and exploited the fish ability of going up again into the basin. 60

Lard was the dressing fat used by the hard workers, however, for all other uses they preferred olive oil. 61

Meat was less popular; they preferred the pig meat, either stewed or boiled; pigs grew wildly in the mountain oak woods. Sausages coming from South Italy are already mentioned in one of Orazio’s poems. 62

The first Roman picture of a wine’s barrel : found in Spain 63

Decline of the Roman Empire SECTION 6 The Fall of the Western Empire Decline of the Roman Empire Political/Military Economic Social • inadequate government for size of empire • expense of defending and maintaining empire • too many poor • loss of patriotism, interest in government, and political honesty • competition for power • heavy taxes • loss of income • army interference made government unstable • decline of manufacturing and agriculture • dependence on German troops

Etruscan Supremacy: 700-509 BCE Provided link between Greek and Roman Art KEYWORDS: TERRA-COTTA, COMPOSITE ORDER Roman Republican Period: 509-27 BCE Begins with overthrowing last Etruscan King and ends with Julius Caesar… Major buildings built more for POLITCAL use than for WORSHIP KEYWORDS: TEMPLES, ARA PACIS, HOMAGE TO RULERS Early Empire Period: 27 BCE-180 CE KEYWORDS: WALL PAINTINGS, CONCRETE, ARCH, COLOSSEUM The High Empire: 180-195 CE Five Good Emperors (Trajan, Hadrian, etc.) kept things prosperous and peaceful. KEYWORDS: COLUMN OF TRAJAN, HADRIAN’S WALL, PANTHEON The Late Empire: 195-400 CE Diocletian had Empire divided into four parts. KEYWORDS: TETRARCHY, ARCH OF CONSTANTINE

Augustus Rome's first emperor. He also added many territories to the empire. Claudius He conquered Britain. Nero He was insane. He murdered his mother and his wife and threw thousands of Christians to the lions. Titus Before he was emperor he destroyed the great Jewish temple of Solomon in Jerusalem. Trajan He was a great conqueror. Under his rule the empire reached its greatest extent. Hadrian He built 'Hadrian's Wall' in the north of Britain to shield the province from the northern barbarians. Diocletian He split the empire into two pieces - a western and an eastern empire. Constantine He was the first Christian emperor. He united the empire again chose his capital to be the small town Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. Romulus Augustus He was the last emperor of Rome, nicknamed Augustulus which means 'little Augustus'. Justinian He was the last 'great' emperor. He conquered many territories, created the 'Justinian Code' and built the fantastic church Santa Sophia. Constantine XI The last emperor of Constantinople. He died defending his great city against the Turks.