Age of Empires: Rome & Han China 753 BCE-600 CE Introduction The several centuries of success for Han China (202 BCE – 220 CE) and the Roman Empire (27 BCE – 476 CE) pinpoint possibilities for comparison in the classical period. They can also help and American audience combine more familiar knowledge, usually about Rome, with an appreciation for less familiar classical achievements, as in China. Both empires provided relative peace over wide areas, organized vigorous internal trading networks, and created immensely potent political systems. Elements of their achievements – Roman law, for example, or the Chinese principles of bureaucracy – would shape world history even to the present day. But the empires were also different, for example, in military and expansionist outlook and in cultural integration. These difference would affect the ultimate legacy of each empire.

Imperial Rome and Han China Both lasted approximately 400 years Both had populations of about 50 million

Rome Han China Natural protections-relative isolation Large landmass Natural protections-central location Able to utilize manpower resources of Italy Mediterranean=“Roman Lake” Hilly, fertile arable land Many navigable rivers Natural protections-relative isolation Large landmass River systems, plateau, deserts, mnts North China plain-fertile but required extensive irrigation

Origins of Empire Han China built on earlier imperial traditions started by the Qin and Zhou Rome built on aristocratic landlords expanding out from a city-state The two empires obviously had different origins The Han dynasty sprung more directly from earlier dynastic activity in classical China, replacing a period of disorder under the Zhou dynasty (which supplanted the Qin dynasty following the Warring States Period) with a focus on the importance of political order. Rome’s origins in politics had more to do with the control of the aristocratic landlords and the importance of a certain “democratic” or oligarchic element during the years of the Republic, both of which were overridden by the institution of the Empire. Spread from homogeneous core to encompass territory of diverse cultures Many in conquered lands adopted elements of core culture-”Romanization” & vice/versa Most lived in countryside but urban centers cosmopolitan

Government Rome Han China 1st ruled by Kings, then republican oligarchy Augustus set model for Emperor- established Principate-a military dictatorship-cult of emperor Well organized bureaucracy founded on Roman law & classical learning-used local officials “Standing Army”- best trained, best fed Slave labor Built extensive road system for military but also spread commerce & culture Enemies on borders 1st persecuted then adopted Christianity Dynastic Mandate-Emperor was “Son of Heaven” Well organized bureaucracy founded on Confucian ideas & traditions-used local officials Emperor promulgated the law Military & civilian conscription Built extensive road system for military but also spread commerce and culture Enemies on borders Adopted Confucianism Used Confucian scholars as government officials

Politics Rome Han China Citizenship Laws established by “Twelve Tables” No idea of citizenship Law promulgated by Emperor

Militarism: Both emphasized territorial expansion Roman Empire Han China Perceived threats to security led to wars and conquests, which only increased the length of borders and led to more perceived threats…which led to more conquests…

Economic Ancient Rome Han China Agriculture-”latifundia”-large estates owned by wealthy Significant slave labor Received revenue from percentage of annual harvest Degree of economic mobility for middle classes Agriculture-Gentry-large estates owned by wealthy Significant population growth Agriculture directed by government; monopolies on iron, salt Received revenue from percentage of annual harvest Merchants & peasants paid taxes in coin cash & land taxes with portion of crop

Han China Rome Merchants: Itinerant, large scale, traveled extensively, often wealthy, special privileges Merchants: marketplace-low status Unprecedented growth in commerce industry tributary exchanges w/ foreign countries Coin currency Government owned shops that competed with itinerant merchants to reduce their economic power Merchants were 2nd rate occupation Trade flourished: “Pax Romana” Silk, spices Coin Currency

Urbanization Rome Han China Rome Model for other cities Prominent marketplace: Forum Wealth derived from conquest Colosseum, Pantheon, Hippodrome, Baths Chang’an & Luoang Model for other cities Prominent marketplace Wealth derived from private commerce, new trade routes, handicraft industries Prominent marketplaces

Technology Rome Han China Roads, bridge-building, ballistic weapons elevated & underground aqueducts arches & domes amphitheaters sewage systems concrete Roads, canals, Great Wall Astronomical observations Watermills Horse collar Paper, crossbow trigger Early seismometer

Integrating the empires Infrastructure: Massive road building projects linked crucial parts of the empires Roads facilitated communication, economic activity, access to resources, movement of military Rome – invented concrete & engineered feats like aqueducts Yep – that’s a Roman Road, still around today. Looking good after 2,000 years.

Mechanisms for Political Integration: China Confucianism identified principles necessary for political & social order Emphasized emperors’ divine majesty, links to Heaven, morality through correct ritual (ancestor veneration Developed a sophisticated bureaucracy with gov’t officials in provinces (staffed by middle class) Imperial Academy & exam system meant ALL areas of China were cohesive & Confucian Both empires worked directly for political integration using slightly different mechanisms. In Han China, several devices combined to produce a political structure capable of ruling a vast empire. The Han dynasty attempted to further Confucian thought as a means of inculcating certain values in the elite, and if possible, other classes. The emperors continued a tradition of emphasizing their divine or semi-divine majesty. Finally, the Han introduced the first clear system of bureaucracy, in which the central government designated representatives in the provinces.

Mechanisms for Political Integration: Rome Bureaucracy less complex than Han – relied on local elites & middle class to control provinces Greater emphasis on law codes- common legal system Monuments & triumphal processions played up glory of empire & rulers Cult of deceased Emperors Rome had its own methods of attaining political integration. Many Roman writers, particularly early in the empire, were eager to sing the praises of the emperors and the imperial system. Rome developed a somewhat more rudimentary bureaucracy than the Chinese, but the Romans placed more emphasis on the legal system and the rule of law across the empire. Rome did not usually assert the divinity of the emperors themselves, but surpassed the Han in imperial monuments, triumphal processions, and emphasis placed on the majesty of the emperor.

Citizenship & Colonies: China Large colonies of ethnically Han (northern) Chinese planted in newly conquered territories Use of Mandarin language required by elites & bureaucrats Ideology of Confucianism enforced by the central authority The differences in these two systems of empire still seem to fall within a context of similarities. The Chinese regime worked harder at integrating its vast territory than the Romans. The Middle Kingdom in China in the classical period was the scene of major ethnic mixing and division, particularly in South China. The regime tackled this head-on by planting large numbers of people from the heart of the empire in the north to the south. Additionally, Mandarin was required by the elite and all levels of bureaucracy. Other classes were strongly encouraged to adopt Mandarin.

Citizenship & Colonies: Rome Colonies were military outposts-not intended for population integration Latin encouraged but never took over Greek in East (people STILL looked up to Greek culture) Expansion of Roman citizenship given for army service Loose control-more local autonomy Rome planted colonies in the hinterlands of their empire, but they were colonies of soldiers, and the hope was that they would begin to foster the Roman lifestyle among the conquered people of the remote provinces. These were smaller colonies and not intended for population integration. The Romans encouraged the use of Latin by the upper classes, although it never managed to erase the predominance of Greek in upper-class circles in the eastern Mediterranean. The Romans emphasized the expansion of Roman citizenship to those willing to serve in the Roman Army. Despite these integrating devices, Rome was content to establish looser control over most of its provinces and to rely on local autonomy.

Imperial Power Both systems expanded functions of government Used bureaucracy & taxation to provision major cities & increased coercion with military Both governments actively engaged in economic activity designed to ensure stability Han=monopoly on salt & iron Rome=“Bread and Circuses”

Territorial Expansion Imperial Rome Imperial Han China More militaristic Needed additional territory as source of wealth & to pay soldiers Needed continuing supply of slaves for labor system Latin language helped unify Provided opportunity for Roman citizenship Pushed boundaries far beyond Qin homeland, but when reached sustainable point, did not feel need to compensate for cessation of expansion Labor force not reliant on slavery – peasant population made constant expansion less necessary Chinese script helped unify

Family & Society Rome Han China Basic unit of society=the family Paterfamilias exercised absolute authority High status males elicited obedience Ancestors/family name important Inequality accepted, institutionalized Reliance on patricians Patron-client relationships-system of mutual benefit & obligation Basic unit of society=family Emphasis on family ancestors-”filial piety” Family hierarchy reflected in society Ancestors played active role in everyday life Reliance on landowning gentry

Role of Women Rome Han China Patriarchal No public role Unable to own property or represent self in legal matters Depended on male guardians Less constrained than Greek Women Over time, gained rights & protections Some women very influential Patriarchal-expected to be obedient Quality of life depended on economics Status & authority depended on society Royal women could be very influential-Empress Dowager could over-ride decisions of Emperor

Religious/ Philosophical Systems Early, both focused on rituals & themes to instilled loyalty to empire- neither intensely spiritual Both exposed to new religions late in Classical Period (Buddhism in China, Christianity in Rome) Both incorporated elements of respective beliefs as methods of political control

Religion/Philosophical Systems Rome (Paganism-Christian) Han China (Shamanistic-Confucian) Divination Polytheistic-adopted Greek gods Calendar revolved around religious festivals Invisible forces called“numina” Rituals sacrifices to maintain Pax deorum-”peace of gods” Christianity suppressed then adopted as state religion Divination Cult of Ancestors Nature Spirits Yin/Yang Feng Shui Confucianism-rituals & relationships Daoism-questioned tradition-rejected hierarchy Buddhism-syncretized as it spread to China

Decline & Fall Rome Han China Internal conflicts in military Rivalries & divisions of authority due to vast size Division of Empire into East and West Christianity undermined traditional values Conflict within ruling elites Peasant rebellions Generals usurped power=warlords-divide into 3 kingdoms Northern nomads

Decline of Imperial Rome and Han China Overexpansion led to invasions by nomadic pastoralists Tax based weakened as land (wealth) was concentrated into fewer hands-paid less in taxes Decline in morals/values Urban decay=Decline in public health Political corruption Unemployment; inflation Military spending Lack of technological innovation Western Roman cultural elements died out with the empire: change Han dynasty was destroyed, but its institutions and traditions were revived by later dynasties: continuity

Why Was China Revived and Rome Not? No Roman equivalent of Confucianism—no method or idea of political organization and social conduct that could survive the breakdown of the Roman state Dynasties come & go, but Confucianism continues Roman culture blended with Germanic to create new traditions Many Roman characteristics continued into Byzantine Empire: law, Christianity, & military organization, etc.