SUB ARCTIC Largest area, least dense population. The entire area probably had as few as 60 000 people.  Weather changes were extreme and game animals depended on seasons and were scarce, making life hard for many

Tribes of the SubArctic

Languages Algonquian was spoken by the Eastern Subarctic groups like the Innu, the Attikamek, the Cree and the Saulteaux. While their languages were unique, they showed similarities to the Cree language division of Algonquian language. The Northern Ojibwa speak Ojibwa, another Algonquian language. The people of the Western Subarctic speak Athapascan. Examples: the Tutchone, Gwich'in (formerly Kutchin), the Han, the Dene, the Tagish, the Tahltan, the Tsetsaut, the Kaska and the Sekani. Some dialects were highly unique and hard to understand. There were more than 20 different versions of Northern Athapakan languages spoken.

Region Northern or boreal coniferous forest : from the arctic tundra to the mountains, plains or deciduous forest in the south and across North America from Labrador nearly to the Bering Sea. 2/3 is the Canadian Shield: full of lakes and rivers. 1/3 western mountain ranges, plateaus and the Yukon River lowlands. The soil was poor and often swampy. Winters were long and harsh but forest cover and snow provided shelter for people and animals. Temperatures often reach -40° C in winter but could rise to 30° C in summer. The animals: Moose, caribou, black bear, Dall sheep (northwestern mountains), beaver, hare ("rabbit") marmot, groundhog, wolverine, otter, marten, mink, weasel, muskrat, lynx, wolf, coyote, fox. In some areas, there were also Muskoxen, bison and wapiti. Fish were plentiful and included species of whitefish, pike, lake trout, grayling and suckers in the Arctic and salmon in the Pacific and Atlantic areas.

Settlement and Housing A variety of houses, but all were small, easy to set up and take down, and move from place to place. Plains-type tipis- skin tents supported by whalebones- or lean-tos of brush. Double Lean-tos covered in hide and brush were used. Lean-tos were free-standing beams of wood or whale bone that were layered against a log or large rock, lashed together, and covered in brush and hide, resulting in a slanted roof and an opening for entering or exiting. Hides kept the fur or hair on the side placed on the interior of the shelter, providing more warmth. Pit Houses; layers of sod placed around a foundation built with whalebone or driftwood. Since they were semi-nomadic, natives of the Sub-arctic had few possessions. At fishing camps in the Cordillera there were roughly built log cabins called smokehouses. The Innu lived in the round Wigwam. A Montagnais person would dig a slanted hole about a foot deep, then lean alder branches around the opening of the hole, to make a shelter.  The floor of the Wigwam was covered in Balsam boughs. The northern Ojibwa lived in dwellings called ridge poles; conical lodges covered with birch bark.

Food and Hunting Hunter-gatherers: Fish, berries, wild grasses, moose, caribou, elk, musk ox, dandelions, marigold, and mosses. Men hunted big game, women snared smaller prey and processed the meats. They would take care to cache (save) food and equipment not needed for the season at hand in prepared pits, racks/platforms in trees, and conical structures.

Tools Bows, arrows, traps, snares, deadfalls, and pounds People caught fish with dip and gill nets, traps, spears, and hook and line. Women were skilled in preparing meat for drying, hide tanning and sewing, making cooking and storage containers of skins, birch bark or coiled spruce root basketry, and making fishnets from willow baste. Men made snowshoes, toboggans, canoes, sleds and hunting implements. A tumpline was a piece of material fastened around the forehead to help support heavy loads. Belt looms were used for weaving. distinctive technologies like large metal knives with double recurved handles, sleds, chair-style birch bark baby carriers, partially decked-over kayak-canoes, and portable domed caribou-skin tents. Some Tutchone had raw copper for making knives and arrowheads; the majority used bone and antler. Much of the technology was dispensable, but the importance was knowing how to make it and when it was to be used.

Religion and clothing Trickster and hero figures – often associated with birds or the sun. Power , survival skills, and knowledge were revered Relationships with animal spirits, especially after a successful hunt. Clothing was from soft-tanned hides; moccasins, leggings, shirts, and coats. Caribou tunics could be decorated with dyed porcupine quills. They tended to wear lighter clothing as they were often on the move, when they stopped, they would make fire to keep them warm. Winter robes made of rabbit skins cut into strips, twisted, and woven together.

Transportation The main transportation of the Subarctic People was walking. Survival depended on being able to travel long distances. Snowshoes were essential for winter travel. Heavy loads were transported on toboggans and, in the far northwest sleds were pulled both by dogs and people. During the summer, people and their belongings were moved along rivers and lakes by canoe. Belongings were limited to those that could be easily carried or made on the spot, such as the snares used to catch animals of all sizes

Family and social structure The family unit was highly valued among the subarctic peoples. Each family was independent, but usually grouped with another family for hunting and ceremony purposes. Kinship names were widely used, but their application was more general (e.g. all the elders were grandfather or grandmother). Children were taught to be self-reliant and learned the habits of game animals and the layout of territory early on. The Subarctic nations were divided by semi-nomadic bands. There was no formal tribe organization. People who had leadership abilities and took the initiative for trading, war or communal hunting were followed because they were good at what they did, or they had wisdom, or spiritual power. Most adult men and women had a part in making decisions that affected the band. Band membership carried responsibilities such as hospitality and protection to other members, and ceremonial obligations to those in opposite family groups, such as cremating their dead. Families or individuals who did not agree with a particular decision were free to join another band or camp, or to act on their own for a time.