Water Resources Chapter 13

Core Case Study: Water Conflicts in the Middle East: A Preview of the Future Water shortages in the Middle East: hydrological poverty Nile River Jordan Basin Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Peacefully solving the problems

Three Major River Basins in the Middle East

13-1 Will We Have Enough Usable Water? Concept 13-1A We are using available freshwater unsustainably by wasting it, polluting it, and charging too little for this irreplaceable natural resource. Concept 13-1B One of every six people does not have sufficient access to clean water, and this situation will almost certainly get worse.

Freshwater Is an Irreplaceable Resource That We Are Managing Poorly (1) Why is water so important? Earth as a watery world: 71% Freshwater availability: 0.024% Poorly managed resource Hydrologic cycle Water pollution

Freshwater Is an Irreplaceable Resource That We Are Managing Poorly (2) Access to water is A global health issue An economic issue A women’s and children’s issue A national and global security issue

Girl Carrying Well Water over Dried Out Earth during a Severe Drought in India

Most of the Earth’s Freshwater Is Not Available to Us Hydrologic cycle Movement of water in the seas, land, and air Driven by solar energy and gravity People divided into Water haves Water have-nots

We Get Freshwater from Groundwater and Surface Water (1) Zone of saturation Water table Aquifers Natural recharge Lateral recharge

We Get Freshwater from Groundwater and Surface Water (2) Surface runoff Watershed (drainage) basin Reliable runoff 1/3 of total

Natural Capital: Groundwater System: Unconfined and Confined Aquifer

We Use a Large and Growing Portion of the World’s Reliable Runoff 2/3 of the surface runoff: lost by seasonal floods 1/3 runoff usable Domestic: 10% Agriculture: 70% Industrial use: 20% Fred Pearce, author of When the Rivers Run Dry

Case Study: Freshwater Resources in the United States More than enough renewable freshwater, unevenly distributed Effect of Floods Pollution Drought 2007: U.S. Geological Survey projection Water hotspots

Figure 13.4 Average annual precipitation and major rivers (top) and water-deficit regions in the continental United States and their proximity to metropolitan areas having populations greater than 1 million (bottom). Question: Why do you think some areas with moderate precipitation still suffer from water shortages? (Data from U.S. Water Resources Council and U.S. Geological Survey) Fig. 13-4a, p. 317

Figure 13.4 Average annual precipitation and major rivers (top) and water-deficit regions in the continental United States and their proximity to metropolitan areas having populations greater than 1 million (bottom). Question: Why do you think some areas with moderate precipitation still suffer from water shortages? (Data from U.S. Water Resources Council and U.S. Geological Survey) Fig. 13-4b, p. 317

Water Hotspots in 17 Western U.S. States Figure 13.5 Water hotspots in 17 western states that, by 2025, could face intense conflicts over scarce water needed for urban growth, irrigation, recreation, and wildlife. Some analysts suggest that this is a map of places not to live during the next 25 years. Question: If you live in one of these hotspot areas, have you noticed any signs of conflict over water supplies? (Data from U.S. Department of the Interior)

Water Shortages Will Grow (1) Dry climate Drought Too many people using a normal supply of water

Water Shortages Will Grow (2) Wasteful use of water China and urbanization Hydrological poverty

Natural Capital Degradation: Stress on the World’s Major River Basins Figure 13.6 Natural capital degradation: stress on the world’s major river basins, based on a comparison of the amount of water available with the amount used by humans (Concept 13-1B).

Long-Term Severe Drought Is Increasing Causes Extended period of below-normal rainfall Diminished groundwater Harmful environmental effects Dries out soils Reduces stream flows Decreases tree growth and biomass Lowers net primary productivity and crop yields Shift in biomes

In Water-Short Areas Farmers and Cities Compete for Water Resources 2007: National Academy of Science study Increased corn production in the U.S. to make ethanol as an alternative fuel Decreasing water supplies Aquifer depletion Increase in pollution of streams and aquifers

Who Should Own and Manage Freshwater Resources? (1) Most water resources Owned by governments Managed as publicly owned resources Veolia and Suez: French companies Buy and manage water resources Successful outcomes in many areas

Who Should Own and Manage Freshwater Resources? (2) Bechtel Corporation Poor water management in Bolivia A subsidiary of Bechtel Corporation Poor water management in Ecuador Potential problems with full privatization of water resources Financial incentive to sell water; not conserve it Poor will still be left out

13-2 Is Extracting Groundwater the Answer? Concept 13-2 Groundwater that is used to supply cities and grow food is being pumped from aquifers in some areas faster than it is renewed by precipitation.

Water Tables Fall When Groundwater Is Withdrawn Faster Than It Is Replenished India, China, and the United States Three largest grain producers Overpumping aquifers for irrigation of crops India and China Small farmers drilling tubewells Effect on water table Saudi Arabia Aquifer depletion and irrigation

Trade-Offs: Withdrawing Groundwater, Advantages and Disadvantages

Natural Capital Degradation: Irrigation in Saudi Arabia Using an Aquifer

Case Study: Aquifer Depletion in the United States Ogallala aquifer: largest known aquifer Irrigates the Great Plains Water table lowered more than 30m Cost of high pumping has eliminated some of the farmers Government subsidies to continue farming deplete the aquifer further Biodiversity threatened in some areas California Central Valley: serious water depletion

Natural Capital Degradation: Areas of Greatest Aquifer Depletion in the U.S.

Natural Capital Degradation: The Ogallala is the World’s Largest Known Aquifer Figure 13.10 Natural capital degradation: The Ogallala is the world’s largest known aquifer. If the water in this aquifer were above ground, it could cover all of the lower 48 states with 0.5 meter (1.5 feet) of water. Water withdrawn from this aquifer is used to grow crops, raise cattle, and provide cities and industries with water. As a result, this aquifer, which is renewed very slowly, is being depleted, especially at its thin southern end in parts of Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Kansas. (Data from U.S. Geological Survey)

Groundwater Overpumping Has Other Harmful Effects (1) Limits future food production Bigger gap between the rich and the poor Land subsidence Mexico City Sinkholes

Groundwater Overpumping Has Other Harmful Effects (2) Groundwater overdrafts near coastal regions Contamination of the groundwater with saltwater Undrinkable and unusable for irrigation

Solutions: Groundwater Depletion, Using Water More Sustainably

Science Focus: Are Deep Aquifers the Answer? Locate the deep aquifers; determine if they contain freshwater or saline water Major concerns Geological and ecological impact of pumping water from them Flow beneath more than one country Who has rights to it?

Active Figure: Threats to aquifers

13-3 Is Building More Dams the Answer? Concept 13-3 Building dam and reservoir systems has greatly increased water supplies in some areas, but it has disrupted ecosystems and displaced people.

Large Dams and Reservoirs Have Advantages and Disadvantages (1) Main goals of a dam and reservoir system Capture and store runoff Release runoff as needed to control: Floods Generate electricity Supply irrigation water Recreation (reservoirs)

Large Dams and Reservoirs Have Advantages and Disadvantages (2) Increase the reliable runoff available Reduce flooding Grow crops in arid regions

Large Dams and Reservoirs Have Advantages and Disadvantages (3) Displaces people Flooded regions Impaired ecological services of rivers Loss of plant and animal species Fill up with sediment within 50 years

Advantages and Disadvantages of Large Dams and Reservoirs

The Ataturk Dam Project in Eastern Turkey

Some Rivers Are Running Dry and Some Lakes Are Shrinking Dams disrupt the hydrologic cycle Major rivers running dry part of the year Colorado and Rio Grande, U.S. Yangtze and Yellow, China Indus, India Danube, Europe Nile River-Lake Victoria, Egypt Lake Chad Africa: disappearing

Case Study: The Colorado River Basin— An Overtapped Resource (1) 2,300 km through 7 U.S. states 14 Dams and reservoirs Located in a desert area within the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains Water supplied mostly from snowmelt of the Rocky Mountains

Case Study: The Colorado River Basin— An Overtapped Resource (2) Supplies water and electricity for more than 25 million people Irrigation of crops Recreation

Case Study: The Colorado River Basin— An Overtapped Resource (3) Four Major problems Colorado River basin has very dry lands Modest flow of water for its size Legal pacts allocated more water for human use than it can supply Amount of water flowing to the mouth of the river has dropped

Case Study: The Colorado River Basin— An Overtapped Resource (4) What will happen if some of the reservoirs empty out? Economic and ecological catastrophe Political and legal battles over water

The Colorado River Basin

Aerial View of Glen Canyon Dam Across the Colorado River and Lake Powell

The Flow of the Colorado River Measured at Its Mouth Has Dropped Sharply

Case Study: China’s Three Gorges Dam (1) World’s largest hydroelectric dam and reservoir 2 km long across the Yangtze River Benefits Electricity-producing potential is huge Holds back the Yangtze River floodwaters Allows cargo-carrying ships

Case Study: China’s Three Gorges Dam (2) Harmful effects Displaces about 5.4 million people Built over a seismic fault Significance? Rotting plant and animal matter producing CH4 Worse than CO2 emissions Will the Yangtze River become a sewer?

13-4 Is Transferring Water from One Place to Another the Answer? Concept 13-4 Transferring water from one place to another has greatly increased water supplies in some areas, but it has also disrupted ecosystems.

CA, U.S., Transfers Water from Water-Rich Areas to Water-Poor Areas Water transferred by Tunnels Aqueducts Underground pipes May cause environmental problems California Water Project

The California Water Project and the Central Arizona Project

Case Study: The Aral Sea Disaster (1) Large-scale water transfers in dry central Asia Salinity Wetland destruction and wildlife Fish extinctions and fishing

Case Study: The Aral Sea Disaster (2) Wind-blown salt Water pollution Climatic changes Restoration efforts

Natural Capital Degradation: The Aral Sea, Shrinking Freshwater Lake

1976 2006 Figure 13.18 Natural capital degradation: the Aral Sea was once the world’s fourth largest freshwater lake. Since 1960, it has been shrinking and getting saltier because most of the water from the rivers that replenish it has been diverted to grow cotton and food crops (Concept 13-4). These satellite photos show the sea in 1976 and in 2006. It has split into two major parts, little Aral on the left and big Aral on the right. As the lake shrank, it left behind a salty desert, economic ruin, increasing health problems, and severe ecological disruption. Question: What do you think should be done to help prevent further shrinkage of the Aral Sea? Stepped Art Fig. 13-18a, p. 331

Ship Stranded in Desert Formed by Shrinkage of the Aral Sea

China Plans a Massive Transfer of Water South-North Water Transfer Project Water from three rivers to supply 0.5 billion people Completion in about 2050 Impact Economic Health Environmental

13-5 Is Converting Salty Seawater to Freshwater the Answer? Concept 13-5 We can convert salty ocean water to freshwater, but the cost is high, and the resulting salty brine must be disposed of without harming aquatic or terrestrial ecosystems.

Removing Salt from Seawater Seems Promising but Is Costly (1) Desalination Distillation Reverse osmosis, microfiltration 15,000 plants in 125 countries Saudi Arabia: highest number

Removing Salt from Seawater Seems Promising but Is Costly (2) Problems High cost and energy footprint Keeps down algal growth and kills many marine organisms Large quantity of brine wastes Future economics

Science Focus: The Search for Improved Desalination Technology Desalination on offshore ships Solar or wind energy Better membranes Better disposal options for the brine waste Reduce water needs, conserve water

13-6 How Can We Use Water More Sustainably? Concept 13-6 We can use water more sustainably by cutting water waste, raising water prices, slowing population growth, and protecting aquifers, forests, and other ecosystems that store and release water.

Reducing Water Waste Has Many Benefits (1) Water conservation Improves irrigation efficiency Improves collection efficiency Uses less in homes and businesses

Reducing Water Waste Has Many Benefits (2) Worldwide: 65–70% loss Evaporation, leaks, etc. Water prices: low cost to user Government subsidies: more needed?

We Can Cut Water Waste in Irrigation Flood irrigation Wasteful Center pivot, low pressure sprinkler Low-energy, precision application sprinklers Drip or trickle irrigation, microirrigation Costly; less water waste

(efficiency 60% and 80% with surge valves) Center pivot (efficiency 80% with low-pressure sprinkler and 90–95% with LEPA sprinkler) Water usually pumped from underground and sprayed from mobile boom with sprinklers. Drip irrigation (efficiency 90–95%) Above- or below-ground pipes or tubes deliver water to individual plant roots. Gravity flow (efficiency 60% and 80% with surge valves) Water usually comes from an aqueduct system or a nearby river. Figure 13.20 Major irrigation systems. Because of high initial costs, center-pivot irrigation and drip irrigation are not widely used. The development of new, low-cost, drip-irrigation systems may change this situation. Stepped Art Fig. 13-20, p. 335

Solutions: Reducing Irrigation Water Waste

Developing Countries Use Low-Tech Methods for Irrigation Human-powered treadle pumps Harvest and store rainwater Create a canopy over crops: reduces evaporation Fog-catcher nets

We Can Cut Water Waste in Industry and Homes Recycle water in industry Fix leaks in the plumbing systems Use water-thrifty landscaping: xeriscaping Use gray water Pay-as-you-go water use

Solutions: Reducing Water Waste

We Can Use Less Water to Remove Wastes Can we mimic how nature deals with waste? Waterless composting toilets

We Need to Use Water More Sustainably “The frog does not drink up the pond in which it lives” Blue revolution

Solutions: Sustainable Water Use

What Can You Do? Water Use and Waste

13-7 How Can We Reduce the Threat of Flooding? Concept 13-7 We can lessen the threat of flooding by protecting more wetlands and natural vegetation in watersheds and by not building in areas subject to frequent flooding.

Some Areas Get Too Much Water from Flooding (1) Flood plains Highly productive wetlands Provide natural flood and erosion control Maintain high water quality Recharge groundwater Benefits of floodplains Fertile soils Nearby rivers for use and recreation Flatlands for urbanization and farming

Some Areas Get Too Much Water from Flooding (2) Dangers of floodplains and floods Deadly and destructive Human activities worsen floods Failing dams and water diversion Hurricane Katrina and the Gulf Coast Removal of coastal wetlands

Natural Capital Degradation: Hillside Before and After Deforestation

Forested Hillside After Deforestation Oxygen released by vegetation Diverse ecological habitat Evapotranspiration Trees reduce soil erosion from heavy rain and wind Tree roots stabilize soil Vegetation releases water slowly and reduces flooding Forested Hillside Agricultural land Stepped Art Tree plantation Roads destabilize hillsides Overgrazing accelerates soil erosion by water and wind Winds remove fragile topsoil Agricultural land is flooded and silted up Gullies and landslides Heavy rain erodes topsoil Silt from erosion fills rivers and reservoirs Rapid runoff causes flooding After Deforestation Evapotranspiration decreases Figure 13.25 Natural capital degradation: hillside before and after deforestation. Once a hillside has been deforested for timber, fuelwood, livestock grazing, or unsustainable farming, water from precipitation rushes down the denuded slopes, erodes precious topsoil, and can increase flooding and pollution in local streams. Such deforestation can also increase landslides and mudflows. A 3,000-year-old Chinese proverb says, “To protect your rivers, protect your mountains.” See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: How might a drought in this area make these effects even worse? Fig. 13-25a, p. 339

Case Study: Living Dangerously on Floodplains in Bangladesh Dense population Located on coastal floodplain Moderate floods maintain fertile soil Increased frequency of large floods Effects of development in the Himalayan foothills Destruction of coastal wetlands

We Can Reduce Flood Risks Rely more on nature’s systems Wetlands Natural vegetation in watersheds Rely less on engineering devices Dams Levees

Solutions: Reducing Flood Damage

Active Figure: Effects of deforestation