Issue: Ending Division & Unifying Colonial borders are still posing problems. Plagued by ethnic & regional conflict. Free Africans often gave loyalty to their ethnic group, not to a faceless national gov’t. Ex.: the Sudan

Issue: Ending Civil War Some civil wars rooted in the age of imperialism. Civil wars often erupted when liberation leaders monopolized political & economic power for their own group. Civil wars, as elsewhere, have unleashed terrible violence. Ex.: Rwanda (Hutus vs. Tutsis)

Issue: Ending One-Party Rule One-party systems were often in response to divisions that threatened national unity. Leaders have argued that multiparty systems create disunity. Most one-party nations became authoritarian and even dictatorships. Ex.: Tanzania

Issue: Ending Military Rule When bad gov’t led to unrest, the military often seized power. Many military leaders, who claimed to be driven by a sense of duty to their country, were brutal tyrants. In many cases, they gave up power only when they were toppled in other military coups (overthrows). Ex.: Uganda

Issue: Create Reforms Demands for change have come from within Africa and from outside parties. Reformers want to build on traditions that had worked before. Many outside nations have called for democratic reforms. They legalized opposition parties & have lifted censorship.

Issue: Socialism or Capitalism? Some African nations set up mixed economies, with both private & state-run enterprises. These too, had problems. These nations relied heavily on outside agencies. Many nations have remained heavily dependent on imports.

Issue: Cash Crops Land used for cash crops such as cotton, tea, and coffee could not be used to produce food. As a result, African countries that once had fed their people from their own land had to import food.

Issue: Address Urban & Rural Needs Many African nations are trying to balance rural development with industrial projects. By the 1980s, many realized they had to pay more attention to the needs of small farmers. They made sure that farmers had tools, fertilizers, and seed and paid them higher prices for their crops. Ex.: Zimbabwe

Issue: Addressing Environmental Concerns The need to industrialize has led to concerns over deforestation and desertification. Private groups have formed to lobby the gov’t for environmental conservation. These often intensify the effect of droughts and famines. Ex.: Ethiopia, Sudan, Kenya

Goal: The AIDS Epidemic Gov’t and medical officials have focused on educating people about how the HIV virus is spread and how one can take precautions to reduce its transmissions. Ex.: Uganda, South Africa, Ethiopia, Kenya, Botswana

Issue: The Treatment of Women Women who have moved to cities are gaining rights that they did not have before. Most women, however, still live in rural areas. As men migrate to cities, women take on the responsibility of caring & providing for their children. The rights promised to them in new constitutions are often not enforced and women’s lives are still ruled by traditional laws. Ex.: West Africa