DEFINING AND DESIGNING QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Chapter 15

Qualitative Research Generic terms for a wide array of research approaches (ethnography, case study, narrative research, etc.) that differ in purpose, approach, methods, and values from more traditional quantitative research

Comparison: Purpose/Goals Qualitative Contextualize findings Interpret behavior Understand perspectives Discover Quantitative Generalize findings Predict behavior Provide causal explanations Confirm

Comparison: Approach Qualitative Theory grounded in findings Natural context Inductive Patterns and complexity Relies on words Holistic language Quantitative Theory grounds the study Controls variables Deductive Components and norms Relies on numbers Precise abstract language

Comparison: Assumptions Qualitative Reality is socially constructed Unstable world Complex variables are difficult to measure Symbolic interactionism roots Quantitative Reality is objective Stable world Variables can be identified and measured Logical empiricism roots

Comparison: Methods Qualitative Focus on nature/essence Fieldwork, naturalistic focus Flexible, emergent Purposive, small samples Researcher as primary instrument Quantitative Focus on quantity/how much Empirical, statistical focus Precise, structured Random, large samples Inanimate instruments

Comparison: Role of Researcher Qualitative Personally involved Empathic understanding Inquiry is value bound Quantitative Detached and impartial Objective portrayal Inquiry is value free

Common Qualitative Characteristics Concern for context and meaning Naturally occurring settings Human as instrument Descriptive data Emergent design Inductive analysis

QL Problems=Focus of Inquiry Not easy to quantify Understood within a setting Group activities over time Roles and behaviors Entire organizations Things about which little is known Closed cultures

Suggestions for Choosing a Problem Interesting to you Significant (contributes to knowledge or solves problem) Reasonable time and complexity YOU are not directly involved

Types of Research Questions Particularizing – about specific context Generic – about a broad population Process – about how things work Variance – about difference or extent Instrumentalist – about observable data Realist – about unobservable phenomena (feelings, beliefs)

Criteria for Evaluating QL Designs Informational adequacy – maximizes potential understanding Efficiency – data collection is cost and time efficient Ethical considerations – participants not at risk

QL Sampling Is typically not random Goal to select a representative sample Use purposive samples sufficient to provide maximum understanding Typically smaller than quantitative Primary criterion is redundancy of information – known as data saturation

QL Sampling Strategies Comprehensive Convenience Criterion Critical Case Deviant/Extreme Homogenous Intensity Maximum Variation

More QL Sampling Strategies Negative/Discrepant Opportunistic Random Purposeful Snowball/Chain Stratified Purposeful Theoretical Typical

QL Common Data Collection Techniques Observations Interviews Documents or Artifacts

Comparing QL and QT Observation Qualitative More global Complete description More extended time No a priori hypotheses Narrative and words Quantitative More structured Numeric summary Less extended time A priori hypotheses Checklists and observation protocols

Observer Roles Complete/Covert Participant Participant as Observer Observer as Participant Complete Observer Collaborative Partner

Potential Impact of Observation Also called Observer Effect Observer Expectation: Researcher expects certain behaviors based on prior knowledge of participants Observer Bias: Observers attitudes and values influence observations and interpretations

Taken by researcher during observation Field Notes Taken by researcher during observation Descriptive Component: describes the setting, the people, interactions, events, etc. Observer Comments: observer reflections, interpretations, feelings, speculations, etc.

Interviews Unstructured interview – conversational with questions arising from the situation Semi-structured or partially structured interview – initial questions developed but may be modified during interview Structured interview – predetermined questions with each interviewee asked the exact same questions

Guides for QL Interviewing Use open-ended questions (cannot be answered with yes or no or simple responses) Avoid leading questions (suggests a particular answer) Avoid double-barreled questions (two questions in one) Avoid confusing questions

Phenomenology Interviews Three interview series recommended by Siedman Interview 1: Context of the experience, focused life history Interview 2: Reconstruct details of the experience Interview 3: Reflect on meaning

Interview Advantages & Disadvantages Large volume of data gathered quickly Insight into perspectives Unanticipated information revealed Immediate follow-up and clarification Disadvantages Unwillingness to share May provide false information Time to collect and transcribe Interviewing skills necessary

Focus Group Interviews Interview groups of people at same time (typically 6-12) More cost and time efficient Socially oriented Less researcher control Not for emotionally charged topics Not when there are unbalanced power dynamics Group dynamics have impact

Interview Comparison One-on-One No group dynamic Bias to moderator not peers More individual input Better top-of-mind & emotional insights Easier to schedule Better for sensitive topics Focus Group Group think More socially acceptable answers Not equal expression Limited top-of-mind insights Collective emotion Harder to schedule Good for brainstorming

Documents and Artifacts Wide array of written, visual, and physical materials Four categories Public records Personal documents Physical materials Researcher-generated documents

Sources Primary source – created by someone with firsthand experience Secondary source – created by someone based on secondhand information

Ethical Considerations Kind of information– potential to acquire sensitive information or information that may present ethical dilemma Relationship to participant – possible difficulty in maintaining distance and cannot provide anonymity Reciprocation – what is given back to the participants Permissions – may be more difficult

Ethical Issues Related to Indigenous Study Methods perceived as insensitive to culture and reflecting non-indigenous values Understanding collective knowledge versus individual knowledge Involvement of the community in designing and conducting research Alternative world views

Ethical Issues Related to Technology Use Privacy and use of public sites or wi-fi Difficult to maintain anonymity Transient populations Inability to verify age or potentially vulnerable populations Difficulty in obtaining informed consent Accessibility for those with disabilities Group site issues with confidentiality or potential for cyber attacks