Unit 5: Scientific Revolution and The Enlightenment

Goals of the Unit To understand the significance of the revolution in science and society’s response. To understand how the specific philosophies of the Age of Reason are rooted in the Scientific Revolution and challenged the Old Order. To understand how the Enlightenment paved the way for the revolutions to come at the end of the 18th and beginning of the 19th centuries.

Scientific Revolution 17th Century Foundations of Enlightenment

Causes of the Scientific Revolution Medieval Universities Encouraged free thinking Out of philosophy grew science Renaissance Rediscovery of Greek mathematics Patronage Not all theories were the same, or accepted – prove it Exploration Improvements needed and supported by governments

Ptolemy vs. Copernicus Ptolemy Copernicus Geocentric Universe 2nd century A.D. Copernicus (1473-1543) Heliocentric Universe On Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 1543 Significance of Copernican Revolution Man is no longer the center of the universe What does this mean about the fixed position of the heavens?

Brahe & Kepler Brahe (1546-1601) Collected data about the movement of the planets and celestial positioning, but did not quite accept Copernicus’ theory Kepler (1571-1630): Laws of Planetary Motion the elliptical orbit planets do not move at a uniform speed the time it takes depends on planet’s relationship to the sun

Galileo 1564-1642 Rejected scripture as a source of scientific knowledge Supported the Copernican Theory – the earth is moving! Used the Telescope Encouraged the development of a scientific method The questions we ask The observations we make The experiments we conduct

Isaac Newton 1642-1727 Saw Kepler’s and Galileo’s Laws as different sides of the same coin Galileo’s theories explained movement on Earth, Kepler’s theories explained celestial movement Newton developed a unified and coherent theory of the universe A new concept of astronomy in which particles in the universe interact with each other based on natural laws Laws of motion, gravity, inertia, etc

Sir Francis Bacon 1561-1626 Inductive Reasoning Arriving at general principles by examining particular examples – empiricism 1. Observation 2. Pattern 3. Tentative Hypothesis 4. Theory

Rene Descartes 1596-1650 Deductive Reasoning Arriving at specific principles based upon logical reasoning from general, usually undisputed principles 1. Theory 2. Hypothesis 3. Observation 4. Confirmation

The Age of Reason France in the 1700s The Enlightenment The Age of Reason France in the 1700s

Influence of Scientific Revolution Scientists used reason to explain laws governing human nature Can this apply to laws governing human behavior as well? Government, religion, economics, education

An Overview of the 18th Century Political History  Reform Intellectual History  Newtonian Physics  Reason Cultural History  Individualism Social History  Increased Literacy  Age of Aristocracy Economic History  Mercantilism to Capitalism

18th Century Politics BRITAIN – Constitutional Monarchy FRANCE - Royal Absolutism PRUSSIA, HABSBURG EMPIRE, RUSSIA - “Enlightened Despotism” OTTOMAN EMPIRE – traditional empire

Thomas Hobbes Leviathan (1651) All humans naturally selfish and wicked Give up rights to a strong ruler – social contract Impose order & demand obedience

John Locke Two Treatises of Government (1690) People are reasonable Natural rights – life, liberty, property Purpose of government – to protect those natural rights People have the right to overthrow “The consent of the governed”

Philosophes Believed people could apply reason to all aspects of life Not really original thinkers as a whole, but great publicists of the new thinking Students of society who analyzed its evils and proposed reforms Core Philosophy: Reason Nature Happiness Progress Liberty

Traditions and Superstitions The “Great Debate” Reason & Logic Traditions and Superstitions -nostalgia for the past -organized religions -irrationalism -emotionalism -rationalism -empiricism -tolerance -skepticism -Deism

Voltaire (1712-1778) “I may not agree with a word that you say, but I will fight to the death for your right to say it.” Satire that targeted the clergy, aristocracy, and the government Friendly with “Enlightened” monarchs such as Frederick & Catherine

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” Every man is guilty of all the good he didn’t do. God is a comedian playing to an audience too afraid to laugh. If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him. It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. Love truth and pardon error.

Voltaire’s “Wisdom” Judge of a man by his questions rather than by his answers. Men are equal; it is not birth, but virtue that makes the difference. Prejudice is opinion without judgment.

Montesquieu On the Spirit of the Laws (1748) Separation of Powers: each branch of government would serve as a check on the other two Checks & Balances: Executive, Judicial, Legislative

Jean Jacques Rousseau “Man is born free, and everywhere, he is in chains.” Civilization corrupts people’s natural goodness In a state of nature people live as free & equal individuals “General Will” – give up some freedom in favor of the common good The Social Contract

Cesare Beccaria On Crimes and Punishments (1764) Speedy Trial No torture Punishment should be based on the crime Capital punishment should be abolished

Mary Wollstonecraft A Vindication of the Rights of Woman 1792 Education is necessary to become virtuous and useful Education will make them better mothers The key to gaining equality and freedom was a better education

Thomas Paine (1737-1809) Common Sense, 1776 The Rights of Man, 1791

The American “Philosophes” John Adams (1745-1826) Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) Ben Franklin (1706-1790) …...…life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness…………...

Enlightened Despots Monarchs who embraced the new ideas and made reforms that reflected the Enlightenment spirit. But didn’t always fully succeed: Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia Still had to deal with Junkers Joseph II of Austria Made the most extreme reforms Catherine the Great of Russia Made serfdom more deeply entrenched

From Baroque to Neoclassical Baroque Musicians: Bach and Handel Dramatic organ and choral music. Lots of emotion Neoclassical Musicians: Mozart and Beethoven Simple, elegant style that borrowed ideas from classics