Errors in Research and Literature Reviewing Dr. M. Tsvere

Sources of error Inaccurate observations Premature closure of a study Overgeneralization of findings in which conclusions are drawn Selective observation Illogical reasoning

solutions 1. inaccurate observations Use observation schedule, check lists showing items you will observe Making use of photographic cameras and video recorders which can be used for later analysis Delimit your study-clearly specify your study boundaries Conduct replications- expeiments

overgeneralization Made by using small samples Make use of large samples= 30 people and above. In research replication of studies and verification of findings is allowed Findings are reviewed before publication.

Illogical reasoning After failing to establish a solution- Work with your supervisor Specify variables in the study- describe your methodology so that it can be followed

Selective observation Eg focusing a particular group because of certain obligations Make use of the mean which is sensitive to all variables in the study and the inclusive range shares the whole extensions Include deviant cases- those which do not fall within the groups)

Premature closure Eg Publishing results before study is over Conduct a pilot study before the major one Test for validity and reliability of instruments and results Share results with fellow researchers so that verifications is done

Literature review One of the essential task in research is to go through the existing literature in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of knowledge in your area of interest. Reviewing literature is time consuming and sometimes daunting and frustrating , but you should not become discouraged, because you will also find it rewarding.

What is literature All published and unpublished writings in a particular style on a particular subject In research this is a collection of published information and data relevant to a research questions

Types of Literature Conceptual lietrature Theoretical perspective of the problem Empirical literature

What is literature review? The extraction and contextualisation of accumulated knowledge from published and scholarly works Interpretation of what is read to add value to your own writing (White, 2005) Web definitions A body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge including substantial findings as well as theoretical and methodological contributions to a particular topic- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature_review

Function of literature review 1. Stimulate generation of new research ideas. Researcher can develop own ideas based on other research experiences. 2. Bringing clarity and focus to your research problem. 2. Improve your methodology 3. Broaden your knowledge base in your research area. Helps to limit questions, clarify and define concepts of study/ puts questions into perspective Find data with which to compare and evaluate own findings/ become more scholarly in research

Bringing clarity and focus Literature review involves a paradox On one hand you can not effectively undertake a literature search without some idea of the problem you wish to investigate. On the other hand , the literature review can play an important role in shaping your research problem because the process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area . Thus it helps you to conceptualise your research problem clearly and precisely. understand the problem, its context, and its major components. It also help to understand the relationship between your research problem and the body of knowledge. place questions in perspective, aim is to add to existing knowledge meaningfully

Leads to the insight into the reasons for contradictory results in area e.g. wrong approaches used or wrong kinds of instruments employed, methodologies or analyses made.

Improve your methodology Getting through the literature acquaints you with methodologies that have been used by others to find answers to research questions similar to the one you are researching on. It tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to the ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked and what problems have been faced By becoming aware of problems and pitfalls this will help better position your methodology that is capable of providing answers to research questions

Investigators learn which methodologies have proved useful and which seem less promising, choice of instruments and data analysis procedures/ capitals on previous successes and failures of others and come up with a more intelligent approach to the problem/ get insight into ways of shaping own research strategy

Broaden your knowledge base Literature review makes you read widely around the area in which you intend to conduct your research. enable investigators to define the frontiers of their field/ identify and understand the theoretical perspective of the problem. What theory informs he research. Literature review helps you to be an expect in your area of study as you know what others have done, what methods they have used etc.

Prevents unnecessary duplication by identifying what has already been extensively researched in the area, what can be extended and what still need to be researched on/ Avoids unintentional replication of previous studies. Minimizes risks such as dead ends, wasting effort, trial and error activities that are directed towards approaches that have been discarded by previous researchers Identify and avoid erroneous findings arising from faulty research designs

Procedure for reviewing literature Reviewing literature is a continuous process. It start with the idea and research problem formulation and continues until the report is finished

Review Process The review process requires you to be able to locate direct literature sources browse through a large number of these sources distinguish between relevant and irrelevant information interpret and organize the information that you collect

Searching Existing Literature Depending on your problem-Sources that can be used are: Books Journals/articles CD-ROMS Newspapers Bulletins Internet (Books, articles, journals etc) Authoritative databases Films/videos/audio tapes

What do you look for What is known in your subject What is the cronology of development of knowledge of your subject Gaps in knowledge of the subject- openings for research, how you intend to bridge them Consensous oissues coming out/ relevant issues, significant databse isseues, various positions Most useful direction you can use as a result for your study,

Nothing is completely balck and white Determine for yourself what is Relevant Significant Adequate- how do I know if its enough

Sources of literature Primary Sources not reviewed like some – original information, first hand accounts written by a witness or researcher at the time of an event or discovery workshop/conference papers, minutes, company resolutions, theses/ dissertations Can be physical publications, on the net or in electronic format

locate primary and secondary sources- abstracts, dictionaries, indexes Reviewed documents or recordings that relate to or discuss information originally presented elsewhere sources such as books, journals, government publications, policy documents Also accessible as physical or electronic databases on the net Tertiary locate primary and secondary sources- abstracts, dictionaries, indexes

The main advantage of books is that materials published in books is of good quality and findings are integrated with other research to form a coherent body of knowledge (Martin 1985:33). The main disadvantage is that the material is not completely up-to-date, as it takes a few years between the completion of a work and its publication in the form of a book.

Journals are mostly up to date even though there is often a gap of between two and three years between the completion of a research project and its publication

How to review the Literature Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework has been confirmed Note the theories put forward , the criticisms of these theories and their basis, the methodologies adopted and criticisms of them. Examine to what extend the findings can be generalised to other situations.

Notice where there are differences of opinion among researchers and give your opinion about the validity of these differences Ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known- the gaps that exist in the body of knowledge.

Writing literature review- include Major concepts , issues raised Methodology used by others, strengths, suitability and weaknesses Questions propositions checking the validity of arguments raised Pinpoint generalizations and assumptions Show gap of knowledge and thrust in relation to your study Show sub topics in a reasonable sequence of ideas as given by objectives/research questions Contextualise, interpret and evaluate scholarly points

Presenting literature review Follow departmental guidelines Suggestion is to use the funnel methods Global Issues Continental issues Regional Issues National issues Local, focused issues

Order of presentation Present most recent work first and work backwards in chronological order of publication Tsvere, 2013..... Tsvere 2009; Tomas, 1999... Interpret and show reason for using that source