The Developing Person Through the Life Span The First Two Years: Psychosocial Development

Emotional Development Infants’ Emotions Smiling and Laughing Social smile (6 weeks): Evoked by viewing human faces Laughter (3 to 4 months): Often associated with curiosity Anger First expressions at around 6 months Healthy response to frustration Sadness Indicates withdrawal and is accompanied by increased production of cortisol Stressful experience for infants

Emotional Development Fear: Emerges at about 9 months in response to people, things, or situations As her nervous system matures and she focuses on her surroundings, new fears crop up, and by 8 to 10 months, the concept of "object permanence" comes into play. "Prior to this milestone, when things disappear, they no longer exist in the baby's mind," explains Dr. Brown. "But now, they understand that things disappear and they still do exist. So when Mom or Dad leaves the room, the child wonders where they went and when they are coming back." Separation Anxiety is often compounded by another fear at this age -- stranger anxiety, when the child is wary of anyone other than her primary caregivers. "That's a good sign, really," says Mona Delahooke, PhD, a developmental psychologist, in Pasadena, California. "It means the baby is beginning to tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar faces."

Emotional Development Stranger wariness: Infant no longer smiles at any friendly face but cries or looks frightened when an unfamiliar person moves too close Separation anxiety: Tears, dismay, or anger when a familiar caregiver leaves. If it remains strong after age 3, it may be considered an emotional disorder. Separation Anxiety is often compounded by another fear at this age -- stranger anxiety, when the child is wary of anyone other than her primary caregivers. "That's a good sign, really," says Mona Delahooke, PhD, a developmental psychologist, in Pasadena, California. "It means the baby is beginning to tell the difference between familiar and unfamiliar faces."

Emotional Development Toddlers’ Emotions Anger and fear become less frequent and more focused Laughing and crying become louder and more discriminating New emotions appear: pride, shame, embarrassment, guilt Require an awareness of other people Emerge from family interactions, influenced by the culture

Emotional Development Self-awareness The realization that one’s body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. First 4 months: Infants have no sense of self; may see themselves as part of their mothers. 5 months: Begin to develop an awareness of themselves as separate from their mothers.

Emotional Development Mirror Recognition Classic experiment (M. Lewis & Brooks, 1978) Babies aged 9–24 months looked into a mirror after a dot of rouge had been put on their noses. None of those younger than 12 months old reacted as if they knew the mark was on them. 15- to 24-month-olds showed self-awareness by touching their own noses with curiosity.

Emotional Development Sometime between 15 and 24 months, children take a large step in self-awareness. In an experiment known as the "rouge test," mothers wiped a bit of rouge on the noses of their children and placed them in front of a mirror. Before 15 months, children look at the reflection and see a red spot on the nose in the mirror, but they don't realize that the red spot is on their own nose. When children are between 15 and 24 months, they begin to realize that the reflection they see is their own, and they either point to the red nose or try to wipe away the rouge. In other words, they understand that the reflection in the mirror is more than a familiar face–it is their own face. At this time, children are learning that they are different from other people and becoming more aware that others may have beliefs, desires, and feelings that differ from their own. Research has shown that once young children reach this level of self-awareness, new emotions like embarrassment, envy, and empathy emerge.

Social Impulses Emotional Self-regulation Directly connected to maturation of the anterior cingulate gyrus Particular people begin to arouse specific emotions Toddlers get angry when teased by an older sibling or react with fear when entering the doctor’s office. Memory triggers specific emotions based on previous experiences.

Stress Hypothalamus Regulates various bodily functions and hormone production May grow more slowly if an infant is often stressed Abuse (form of chronic stress) Potential long-term effects on a child’s emotional development Excessive stress in infants must be prevented

Stress Stress can be avoided by: supporting new mothers involving new fathers in the care of the infant strengthening the parents’ relationship

Brain Maturation and the Emotions Synesthesia When one sense triggers another in the brain Common in infants because boundaries between sensory parts of the cortex are less distinct. Cross-modal perception Infant associates textures with vision, sounds with smells, own body with the bodies of others Basis for early social understanding Synesthesia of emotions Infant’s cry can be triggered by pain, fear, tiredness, or excitement; laughter can turn to tears. Emotions are difficult to predict because of the way infants’ brains are activated. Synesthesia dates back to the 17th century. The most historically known and described form of synesthesia is the one who involves the sense of vision and sound. The interest in colored hearing is a phenomena dating back to Greek antiquity where it was commonly referred to as synesthesia in art. Synesthesia is a neurological condition in which two or more senses are attached. People with synesthesia have a relationship between the senses. The excitement of one sense stimulates the experiencing of another. It is estimated that one in every 10,000 people has synesthesia but recently this estimation has been doubted because is a very low ratio considering the number of reported cases. The specific cause of synesthesia is still unknown. However, there are speculations that many crosstalks between the regions of the brain that are responsible of the senses functions may be the cause of several types of synesthesia. Cross-activation appear due to a failure in pruning. Pruning is one of the major methods of synaptic plasticity. It handles the partial elimination of connections between regions of the brain during its developmental process.

Brain Maturation and the Emotions Temperament In psychology, temperament refers to those aspects of an individual's personality, such that are often regarded as biologically based (and sometimes innate) rather than learned. Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation Temperament is epigenetic, originating in the genes but affected by child-rearing practices Note: Temperament refers to a set of innate or inborn traits that organize a child's approach to the world, while personality is what arises within the individual. Personality is acquired on top of the temperament. Temperament consists of the individual differences in emotion, motor activation and attentional reaction to stimuli. Temperament shapes children’s outcomes and influences the way they interact with their environment and how adults and children respond to them.

The N.Y. Longitudinal Study Findings Found 4 categories of temperament Easy (40%) Difficult (10%) Slow to warm up (15%) Hard to classify (35%) Additional findings: Parenting practices are crucial, temperament can change or be changed

Goodness of Fit A similarity of temperament and values that produces a smooth interaction between an individual and his or her social context includes family, school, and community. With a good fit parents of difficult babies build a close relationship parents of exuberant, curious infants learn to protect them from harm parents of slow-to-warm-up toddlers give them time to adjust Goodness of fit, as used in psychology and parenting, describes the compatibility of a person's temperament with the features of their particular social environment. All environments, i.e. family, lifestyle, workplace, etc. have differing characteristics and demands.

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Psychoanalytic Theory Freud: Oral and Anal Stages Oral stage (first year): The mouth is the young infant’s primary source of gratification Anal stage (second year): Infant’s main pleasure comes from the anus (e.g. sensual pleasure of bowel movements and the psychological pleasure of controlling them) Potential conflicts: Oral fixation: If denied the infant urge to suck, may become an adult who is stuck (fixated) at the oral stage (e.g. eats, drinks, chews, bites, or talks excessively) Anal personality: Overly strict or premature toilet training may result in an adult with an unusually strong need for control, regularity and cleanliness

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Erikson: Trust and Autonomy Trust versus mistrust Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs are met Autonomy versus shame and doubt Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and bodies Early problems can create an adult who is suspicious and pessimistic (mistrusting) or who is easily shamed (insufficient autonomy)

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Behaviorism Parents mold an infant’s emotions and personality through reinforcement and punishment Social learning The acquisition of behavior patterns by observing the behavior of others Demonstrated in the classic Bobo Doll study by Albert Bandura

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Cognitive Theory Working model: a set of assumptions used to organize perceptions and experiences A person might assume that other people are trustworthy and be surprised by evidence that this working model of human behavior is erroneous. The child’s interpretation of early experiences is more important than the experiences themselves. New working models can be developed based on new experiences or reinterpretation of previous experiences.

Theories of Infant Psychosocial Development Ethnotheory A theory that underlies the values and practices of a culture but is not usually apparent to the people within the culture. Example: Culture’s ethnotheory includes the belief in reincarnation Children are not expected to show respect for adults, but adults must show respect for their reborn ancestors  indulgent child-rearing Perceived as extremely lenient by Western cultures “Over the past several decades, the topic of child development in a cultural context has received a great deal of theoretical and empirical investigation. Investigators from the fields of indigenous and cultural psychology have argued that childhood is socially and historically constructed, rather than a universal process with a standard sequence of developmental stages or descriptions. As a result, many psychologists have become doubtful that any stage theory of cognitive or socialemotional development can be found to be valid for all times and places. In placing more theoretical emphasis on contextual processes, they define culture as a complex system of common symbolic action patterns (or scripts) built up through everyday human social interaction by means of which individuals create common meanings and in terms of which they organize experience. Researchers understand culture to be organized and coherent, but not homogenous or static, and realize that the complex dynamic system of culture constantly undergoes transformation as participants (adults and children) negotiate and re-negotiate meanings through social interaction. These negotiations and transactions give rise to unceasing heterogeneity and variability in how different individuals and groups of individuals interpret values and meanings.” Published in Indigenous and Cultural Psychology: Understanding People in Context, edited by Uichol Kim, Kuo-Shu Yang, and Kwang-kuo Hwang. © 2006 Springer Science+Business Media, Inc. ISBN: 0-978-387-28661-7. http://springeronline.com

Proximal and Distal Parenting Proximal parenting Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching Distal parenting Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching The difference between proximal and distal parenting is physical closeness. Proximal parenting is having physical closeness with your child, while distal parenting involves keeping a bit of distance.

Proximal and Distal Parenting Individualism is a belief that everyone needs to look after themselves and support themselves. Collectivism is a value or belief where you think of society first and what societies needs are. A collectivist culture is one in which people tend to view themselves as members of groups( families, work units, tribes, nations), and usually consider the needs of the group to be more important than the needs of individuals. Most Asian cultures, including China's, tend to be collectivist. Collectivistic Individualistic Culture Culture

Synchrony A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant Synchrony in the first few months Becomes more frequent and more elaborate Helps infants learn to read others’ emotions and to develop the skills of social interaction Synchrony usually begins with parents imitating infants Synchrony encompasses both the mother's and the child's responsivity and their emotional capacity to respond each other. During early development, synchrony involves a matching of behavior, emotional states, and biological rhythms between parents and infants that together forms a single relational unit.

When Synchrony Disappears Experiments using the still-face technique An experimental practice in which an adult keeps his or her face unmoving and expressionless in face-to-face interaction with an infant Babies are very upset by the still face and show signs of stress Conclusions: A parent’s responsiveness to an infant aids psychological and biological development Infants’ brains need social interaction to develop to their fullest

Attachment Attachment is a lasting emotional bond that one person has with another. Attachments begin to form in early infancy and influence a person’s close relationships throughout life Infants show attachment through proximity-seeking (i.e. approaching caregiver) and contact-maintaining (i.e. touching, holding)

Attachment Attachment in children is "a biological instinct in which proximity to an attachment figure is sought when the child senses or perceives threat or discomfort.

Secure and Insecure Attachment Secure attachment: An infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver. Insecure-avoidant attachment: An infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.

Secure and Insecure Attachment 3. Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment: An infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion. 4. Disorganized attachment: A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return.

Secure and Insecure Attachment

Measuring Attachment Strange Situation Key behaviors to observe: A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants’ reactions to the stress of various adults’ comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom. Key behaviors to observe: Exploration of the toys. A secure toddler plays happily. Reaction to the caregiver’s departure. A secure toddler misses the caregiver. Reaction to the caregiver’s return. A secure toddler welcomes the caregiver’s reappearance.

Measuring Attachment Strange Situation

Measuring Attachment Strange Situation

Measuring Attachment

Social Referencing Social referencing Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else’s expressions and reactions. Mothers use a variety of expressions, vocalizations, and gestures to convey social information to their infants.

Fathers as Social Partners Fathers usually spend less time with infants than mothers do and are less involved parents Reasons: Fathers’ own ideas of appropriate male behavior Mothers often limit fathers’ interactions with their children Quality of marital relationship is best predictor Happier husbands tend to be more involved fathers

Comparing Fathers and Mothers Selected research findings: Teenagers are less likely to lash out at friends and authorities if they experienced a warm, responsive relationship with their fathers as infants (Trautmann-Villalba et al., 2006). Close father–infant relationships can teach infants (especially boys) appropriate expressions of emotion (Boyce et al., 2006). Close relationships with their infants reduce fathers’ risk of depression (Borke et al., 2007; Bronte-Tinkew et al., 2007). Mothers tend to engage in more caregiving and comforting, and fathers tend to engage in more high-intensity play (Kochanska et al., 2008).

Infant Day Care Family day care Center day care Child care that includes several children of various ages and usually occurs in the home of a woman who is paid to provide it. Center day care Child care that occurs in a place especially designed for the purpose, where several paid adults care for many children. Usually the children are grouped by age, the day-care center is licensed, and providers are trained and certified in child development.

Infant Day Care If your infant attends day care, choosing the highest quality care you can will benefit her psychosocial development. Several elements go into high-quality care, including low adult-to-child ratios, smaller rather than larger classes and caregivers with higher levels of education. In addition, the teachers should be warm and upbeat, engaging with each child in a positive way by encouraging them orally, responding to their cues and comforting them when they are upset.

The Effects of Infant Day Care The impact of nonmaternal care depends on many factors. Psychosocial characteristics, including secure attachment, are influenced more by the mother’s warmth than by the number of hours spent in nonmaternal care. Quality of care is crucial, no matter who provides that care. Traditionally the time children spend in day care is associated with negative effects in social development. More hours in day care during a child’s early years is associated with less social competence and cooperation, more problem behaviors, negative mood, aggression, and conflict; however, much of what we know about the psychosocial development of infants in day care comes from a long-term National Institutes of Child Health and Development study of more than 1,000 children that began in 1991. Researchers tracked the children, who were cared for in a variety of ways starting at birth, and analyzed their development in various areas as they matured. In 2007, researchers reported that overall, children who attended day care and kids who stayed home with mom or were in another type of care all developed similarly.

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