Accounting for Managers Unit 2 –Depreciation & Ratio Analysis Session No :2 Padma. R

Deprecations Straight Line Method Diminishing Balance Method Annuity Method Ratio Analysis Classification of Ratios – Liquidity, Profitability, Financial and Turnover Ratios

Meaning of Depreciation Depreciation means a fall in the quality or value of an asset. The concept of depreciation refers to the process of allocating the initial or restated input valuation of fixed assets to the several periods expected to benefit from their acquisitions and use.

Depreciation accounting Is a system of accounting which aims to distribute the cost or other basic value of tangible capital assets, less salvage (if any), over the estimated useful life of the unit (which may be a group of assets) in a systematic and rational manner. It is a process of allocation and not of valuation.

Methods Of Depreciation The amount of depreciation of a fixed asset is determined taking into account the following three factors : Its original cost Its recoverable cost at the time it is retired from service The length of its life There a three methods of depreciation 1.Straight line method, 2.Diminishing balance method 3.Annuity method

Straight Line Method Of Depreciation Also known as “fixed installment system” Equal amount of depreciation every year. This depreciation method is appropriate where economic benefits from an asset are expected to be realized evenly over its useful life. In other words, this method writes off a fixed percentage Cost of acquisition + installment chargers – scrap value Annual charges = --------------------------------------------------------------------- Estimated life

Annual value = ---------------------------------- = 14,000 Example Machinery A was purchased at Rs 1,00,000. The installment cost was Rs 50,000. scrap value is estimated at Rs 10,000. The estimated life machinery is 10 years . Calculate the Depreciation. Sol: 1,00,000+50,000-10,000 Annual value = ---------------------------------- = 14,000 10

Diminishing Balance Method Also known as the, `reducing installment system’ or `written down value method’, Depreciation as a fixed percentage to the balance of the net cost of the asset not yet allocated at the end of the previous accounting period.

On 1-1-2012, machinery was purchased for Rs. 3,00,000 On 1-1-2012, machinery was purchased for Rs.3,00,000. Depreciation at the rate of 10% has to be written off. Write up the machinery account for three years under: 1. Straight line method (SLM) and 2. Written down value method (WDV)

Straight line method On 1st jan 2012 3,00,000*10/100= 30,000 Year Value of machinery (minus) Deprecation amount = Annual value 1st jan 2012 3,00,000 30,000 2,70,000 1st jan 2013 30,0000 2,40,000 1st jan 2014 2,10,000 1st jan 2015 1,80,000

Written down value method (WDV) Year Value of machinery - Deprecation amount = Annual value (10%) 1st jan 2012 3,00,000 3,00,000*10% =30,000 2,70,000 1st jan 2013 2,70,000*10%= 27,000 2,43,000 1st jan 2014 2,43,000*10= 24,300 2,18,700 1st jan 2015 2,18,700*10= 21,870 1,96,830

writing off depreciation under any method Depreciation a/c ….. Dr To asset a/c

writing off depreciation under any method Date Particulars SLM WDV 2012 2013 2014 2015 To Bank A/C To Balance B/D 3,00,000 ---------- 2,70,000 ------------ 2,40,000 2,10,000 ----------- 2,43,000 2,18,700 31-12 31-12- By Depreciation By Balance C/D 30,000 --------- 27,000 24,300 writing off depreciation under any method Depreciation a/c ….. Dr To asset a/c

Annuity Method Of Depreciation The amount spent on the acquisition of an asset is regarded as investment which is assumed to earn interest at a certain rate. Every year the asset is debited with the amount of interest and credited with the amount of depreciation. This interest is calculated on the debit balance of the asset account at the beginning of the year. The amount to be written off as depreciation is calculated from the annuity table.

Year 3`% 3.5% 4% 4.5% 5% 3 0.353530 0.359634 0.36034 0.363773 0.367209 4 0.269027 0.272251 0.275490 0.278744 0.282012 5 0.218355 0.221481 0.224627 0.227792 0.230975 A lease is purchased for a term of 4 years by payment of rs.1,00,000. It is proposed to depreciate the lease by annuity method charging 4% interest. If annuity of re.1 for 4 years at 4% is 0.275490, show the lease account for the full period. Amount of annual depreciation =rs.1,00,000 x re.0.275490 = rs.27,549

Lease account Date Particulars Amount amount 1st Year 2nd Year 3rd Year To Bank To Interest At 4% To Balance B/D 100000.00 4000.00 ------------ 104000.00 76451.00 3058.04 79509.04 51960.04 2078.40 54038.44 1st 3rd By Depreciation By Balance C/D 27549.00 ------------27549.00 26489.44 --------------

Ratio Analysis Analysis and interpretation of financial statements full diagnosis of the profitability and financial soundness of the business is made possible. The term `analysis of financial statements’ means methodical classification of the data given in the financial statements. The term `interpretation of financial statements’ means explaining the meaning and significance of the data so classified

Financial Analysis “Analyzing financial statements is a process of evaluating the relationship between the component parts of the financial statements to obtain a better understanding of a firm’s position and performance”. The purpose of evaluation of financial statements differs among various groups: creditors, shareholders, potential investors, management and so on.

Meaning of Ratio Analysis “The relationship of one item to another expressed in simple mathematical form is known as a ratio” The main objectives of ratio analysis are: To simplify the comparative picture of financial statements. To assist the management in decision making. To guage the profitability, solvency and efficiency of an enterprise, and To ascertain the rate and direction of change and future potentiality

Classification of Ratios The ratios have been categorized under the following headings:- (i) ratios for analysis of capital structure or leverage. (ii) ratios for fixed assets analysis. (iii) ratios for analysis of turnover. (iv) ratios for analysis of liquidity position. (v) ratios for analysis of profitability. (vi) ratios for analysis of operational efficiency.

Capital Structure or Leverage Ratios Financial strength indicates the soundness of the financial resources of an organization to perform its operations in the long run Financial strength is directly associated with the operational ability of the organisation and its efficient management of resources. The financial strength analysis can be made with the help of the following ratios: (1) Debt-equity ratio (2) Capital gearing ratio (3) Financial leverage (4) Proprietary ratio and (5) Interest coverage.

Debt-Equity Ratio The debt-equity ratio is determined to ascertain the soundness of the long-term financial policies of the company. This ratio indicates the proportion between the shareholders’ funds (i.e. Tangible net worth) and the total borrowed funds. Ideal ratio is 1. Debt Debt-equity ratio = ----------- Equity A high ratio indicates that the claims of creditors are higher as compared to owners’ funds and a low debt-equity ratio may result in a higher claim of equity.

Capital Gearing Ratio This ratio establishes the relationship between the fixed interest-bearing securities and equity shares of a company. It is calculated as follows: Fixed interest-bearing securities Capital gearing ratio = ------------------------------------------- Equity shareholders’ funds If this ratio is less than one, it is said to be low geared. If it is exactly one, it is evenly geared.

Financial Leverage Ratio Financial leverage results from the presence of fixed financial charges in the firm’s income stream. Financial leverage is concerned with the effects of changes in earnings before interest and taxes on the earnings available to equity holders. It is defined as the ability of a firm to use fixed financial charges to magnify the effects of changes in ebit on the firm’s earning per share.

Proprietary Ratio This ratio establishes the relationship between the proprietors’ funds and the total tangible assets. The general financial strength of a firm can be understood from this ratio. The ratio is of particular importance to the creditors who can find out the proportion of shareholders’ funds in the capital assets employed in the business. A high ratio shows that a concern is less dependent on outside funds for capital . Net Worth Proprietary Ratio = ---------------- Total Assets

Interest Coverage This ratio measures the debt servicing capacity of a firm in so far as fixed interest on long-term loan is concerned. It is determined by dividing the operating profits or earnings before interest and taxes (ebit) by the fixed interest charges on loans. EBIT Interest Coverage = ---------- Interest

II. Fixed Assets Analysis Analysis of fixed assets is very important from investors’ point of view because investors are more concerned with long term assets. Fixed assets are properties of non-current nature which are acquired to provide facilities to carry on business . Fixed assets are generally financed by owners’ equity and long-term borrowings. Fixed assets has been done with the help of the following ratios:- (a) Fixed Assets To Net Worth (b) Fixed Assets To Long-Term Funds

Fixed Assets To Net Worth “this ratio indicates the relationship between net worth (i.e. Shareholders’ funds) and investments in net fixed assets (i.e. Gross block minus depreciation)”. The higher the ratio the lesser would be the protection to creditors. If the ratio is less than 1, it indicates that the net worth exceeds fixed assets. Net Fixed Assets Fixed Assets To Net Worth Ratio = ------------------ Net Worth

Fixed Assets To Long-Term Funds This ratio establishes the relationship between the fixed assets and long-term funds and it is obtained by the formula: Fixed Assets FIXED ASSET RATIO = -------------------- Long-Term Funds The ratio should be less than one. If it is less than one, it shows that a part of the working capital has been financed through long-term funds. This is desirable because a part of working capital termed as “core working capital” is more or less of a fixed nature. The ideal ratio is 0.67.

III. Analysis Of Turnover (Or) Analysis Of Efficiency Turnover ratios also referred to as activity ratios are concerned with measuring the efficiency in asset management. These ratios are also called as efficiency ratios or asset utilisation ratios. The greater the rate of turnover or conversion, the more efficient the utilisation/management, other things being equal. Some of the more widely used turnover ratios are:- Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio Current Assets Turnover Ratio Working Assets Turnover Ratio Inventory (Or Stock) Turnover Ratio Debtors Turnover Ratio Creditors Turnover Ratio

Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio The fixed assets turnover ratio measures the efficiency with which the firm is utilising its investment in fixed assets, such as land, building, plant and machinery, furniture, etc. Sales Fixed Assets Turnover Ratio = ---------------- Net Fixed Assets A high fixed assets turnover ratio indicates efficient utilisation of fixed assets in generating operating revenue.

Current Assets Turnover Ratio The current assets turnover ratio ascertains the efficiency with which current assets are used in a business . This ratio is strongly associated with efficient utilisation of costs, receivables and inventory . A higher value of this ratio indicates greater circulation of current assets while a low ratio indicates a stagnation of the flow of current assets. Sales Current Assets Turnover Ratio = ----------------- Current Assets

Working Capital Turnover Ratio this ratio shows the number of times working capital is turned-over in a stated period. Working capital turnover ratio reflects the extent to which a business is operating on a small amount of working capital in relation to sales. Sales Working Capital Turnover Ratio = ---------------------- Net Working Capital The higher the ratio, the lower is the investment in working capital and greater are the profits.

Inventory Turnover Ratio The inventory turnover ratio, also known as stock turnover ratio normally establishes the relationship between cost of goods sold and average inventory. This ratio indicates whether investment in inventory is within proper limit or not. Cost Of Goods Sold Inventory Turnover Ratio = ------------------------- Average Inventory High inventory turnover ratio is better than a low ratio. A high ratio implies good inventory management.

Debtors Turnover Ratio And Collection Period The debtors turnover ratio is a test of the liquidity of the debtors of a firm. The liquidity of a firm’s receivables can be examined in two ways: (i) debtors/receivables turnover and (ii) average collection period. Net Credit Sales Debtors Turnover Ratio = --------------------- Average Debtors Net credit sales consists of gross credit sales minus returns if any, from the customers. Average debtors is the simple average of debtors at the beginning and at the end of the year.

The second type of ratio measuring the liquidity of a firm’s debtors is the average collection period. This ratio is, in fact, interrelated with and dependent upon, the receivables turnover ratio. It is calculated by dividing the days in a year by the debtors turnover. Thus, Days In Year Average Collection Period = -------------------- Debtors Turnover

Creditors’ Turnover Ratio And Debt Payment Period Creditors’ turnover ratio indicates the speed with which the payments for credit purchases are made to the creditors. This ratio can be computed as follows:- Average Accounts Payable Creditors’ Turnover Ratio = ----------------------------- Net Credit Purchases A high ratio indicates that creditors are not paid in time while a low ratio gives an idea that the business is not taking full advantage of credit period allowed by the creditors.

IV Analysis Of Liquidity Position The liquidity ratios measure the ability of a firm to meet its short- term obligations and reflect the short-term financial strength/solvency of a firm. The term liquidity is described as convertibility of assets ultimately into cash in the course of normal business operations and the maintenance of a regular cash flow. Ratios are used to measure the liquidity position:- current ratio liquid (or) quick ratio cash to current assets ratio cash to working capital ratio

Current Ratio the ratio of the firm’s current assets to current liabilities. It is calculated by dividing current assets by current liabilities: Current Assets Current Ratio = ------------------- Current Liabilities

Liquid (Or) Quick Ratio Liquid (or) quick ratio is a measurement of a firm’s ability to convert its current assets quickly into cash in order to meet its current liabilities. It is a measure of judging the immediate ability of the firm to pay-off its current obligations. Quick Assets Liquid Ratio = --------------------- Current Liabilities

Cash To Current Assets Ratio Efficient management of the inflow and outflow of cash plays a crucial role in the overall performance of a business. Cash is the most liquid form of assets which safeguards the security interest of a business. Cash Cash To Working Capital Ratio = -------------------- Working Capital

Analysis Of Profitability Profitability is a measure of efficiency and control. It indicates the efficiency or effectiveness with which the operations of the business are carried on. Gross Profit Ratio Net Profit Ratio Return On Capital Employed Operating Ratio Operating Profit Ratio Return On Owners’ Equity Earnings Per Share Dividend Pay Out Ratio

The gross profit ratio or gross profit margin ratio expresses the relationship of gross profit on sales / net sales. Gross Profit Gross Profit Ratio = ------------------ X 100 Sales Net profit is a good indicator of the efficiency of a firm. Net profit ratio or net profit margin ratio is determined by relating net income after taxes to net sales. Net Profit Net Profit Ratio = ---------------- X 100

Return On Capital Employed the return on capital employed is used as a measure of success of a business in realising this objective. Operating Profit Return On Capital Employed = --------------------- X 100 Capital Employed Operating Ratio: This ratio establishes the relationship between total operating expenses and sales. Total operating expenses includes cost of goods sold plus other operating expenses.

Cost Of Goods Sold + Operating Experience Operating Ratio = ----------------------------------------------------- X 100 Sales Operating Profit Ratio: this ratio indicates net-margin earned on a sale of rs.100. It is calculated as follows: Net Operating Profit Operating Profit Ratio = ------------------------- X 100

Return On Owners’ Equity (Or) Shareholders’ Fund (Or) The Net Worth The ratio of return on owners’ equity is a valuable measure for judging the profitability of an organisation. This ratio helps the shareholders of a firm to know the return on investment in terms of profits. Net Profit After Interest And Tax Return On Owners’ Equity = -------------------------------------- X 100 Owners’ Equity (Net Worth)

Earnings Per Share (EPS) Net Profit After Tax – Preference Dividend Earnings Per Share = ---------------------------------------------------- Number Of Equity Shares Dividend Pay Out Ratio Dividend Per Equity Share Dividend Payout Ratio = ------------------------------- Earnings Per Share

Summary Depreciation is fall in the value of the assets. Three methods of calculating deprection. Straight line method/ fixed installment method Diminishing balance method/ reducing installment system/ written down value method Annuity method

Summary Ratio Indicates Higher/ more than 1 Lower / less than 1 Debt-equity Share holder’s fund and total borrowed fund Clams of creditors higher than owners Higher claim of equity ‘K’ gearing Fixed interest bearing & equity share High geared Low geared Financial leverage Fixed charges do not vary Earning before interest and tax Neither high Nor low Proprietary ratio Proprietor’s fund and total tangible assets Less dependent on outside fund More dependent Interest coverage Debt servicing capacity and fixed interest on long team loan Unused debt capacity Using excessive debt Fixed assets to net worth Net worth and investment in fixed assets More than one part of FA has been provided by creditors Less than 1, net worth is more than fixed assets FA to long term fund FA and long term funds Current liability is invested in long term assets Working capital is financed by long term fund

Ratio Indicates Higher/ more than 1 Lower / less than 1 Fixed turn over Efficiency for utilizing investment Efficient utilizing of assets for earing revenue Inefficient utilization Current assets turnover Use of current assets Great circulation of current assets Stagnation Inventory turnover Cost od goods sold n average inventory Good inventory management Dangerous Current ratio Liquid position ideal 2:1 More than 2 very comfortable in payment Difficult Liquid ratio Current asset quickly to cash 1:1

Ratio Indicates Higher/ more than 1 Lower / less than 1 Gross profit Gross profit and sale. Good effective mgt Decline in business Net ratio Efficiency of a firm Better position Operating ratio Total operating expenses and sale Operation expenses are high Lower is better EPS Profit available to equity shareholders Dividend payout ratio Earnings belonging to the ordinary shareholder and dividend paid to them

THANK YOU Padma..R