Learning Chapter 8 AP Psychology

What is learning? Relatively permanent change in behavior Due to experience

Associative Learning Linking two events together Conditioning: Process of learning associations

Behaviorism Psychology should be an objective science that deals with observable behavior Not mental processes John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner, Pavlov

Classical Conditioning Learning to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov Originally researching on the digestive system Noticed that dogs began to salivate not only when tasting food, but when seeing food or a person delivering food Led to debates about what the dogs were thinking when anticipating food

Pavlov’s Experiments Isolated dog in a small room with a harness Inserted tubes to measure dog’s saliva Sounded a tone just before placing feeding dog Dog eventually began to salivate at the sound of the tone after several pairings

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response Food(naturally causes dogs to salivate) Unconditioned response (UCR): Unlearned, natural response Salivating to the taste of food (natural for dogs) Conditioned stimulus (CS): Originally irrelevant stimulus Tone (dogs do not naturally salivate to the sound of the tone) Conditioned response (CR): Learned response to a previously neutral stimulus Salivating to the sound of the tone

Example- The Office UCS: Altoid UCR: Mouth feeling dry in anticipation of altoid CS: Computer sound CR: Mouth feeling dry/anticipation of altoid

Example- Frasier UCS: Team losing UCR: Sadness/unpleasant feelings CS: Red balloon CR: Sadness/unpleasant feelings

Acquisition Initial stage of learning When one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus How much time should elapse between presenting the neutral stimulus and the UCS? Pavlov discovered half a second

Acquisition Conditioning does not happen when the US is presented before the CS. Tone must be heard BEFORE presenting the food Classical conditioning is biologically adaptive Helps humans and other animals prepare for good or bad events Helps us to survive and reproduce

Extinction Diminishing of a conditioned response Occurs when a US does not follow a CS Sounding the tone again and again without following with food

Spontaneous Recovery Reappearance of extinguished conditioned response after a pause (usually weakened)

Generalization Tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses Dogs conditioned to salivate at the sound of Pavlov’s tone would also salivate to the sound of a different tone Generalization can be adaptive Children taught to fear moving cars also become afraid of moving trucks and motorcycles

Discrimination Learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus Pavlov’s dogs learned to respond to the sound of some tones and not to respond to some other tones

Watson and “Little Albert” At first, Little Albert feared loud noises, but not white rats. Watson and Rosalie Rayner presented a white rat and struck a hammer against a steel bar behind Little Albert’s head as he reached to touch it.

Watson and “Little Albert” After several repeats of the process, Little Albert began to cry at the sight of the rat. Generalization: Little Albert reacted with fear to a rabbit, a dog, and a coat, but not to toys.

Review Discuss with someone next to you: Give an example of generalization Give an example of discrimination

Operant Conditioning Organisms associate their own actions with consequences Different from classical conditioning

Edward Thorndike B.F. Skinner

Thorndike’s Experiment Placed cats in “puzzle boxes” Used fish to entice cats to find their way out through a series of maneuvers Cats’ performance improved with successive trials Law of effect: Rewarded behavior is likely to recur

Skinner’s Experiments Operant chamber- “Skinner box” rats and pigeons Animal presses a bar or pecks a key that releases food or water

Shaping Reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of desired behavior

Reinforcers Any event that strengthens a behavior Positive reinforcement: Presenting a pleasurable stimulus after a response Praise, candy, money Negative reinforcement: Reducing or removing something unpleasant Removal of chores, taking aspirin to remove headache NOT PUNISHMENT!!!

Reinforcers Primary reinforcers: Innately satisfying Food when hungry, having a headache go away Conditioned reinforcers: Learned association with primary reinforcers Money, grades Also called secondary reinforcers

Reinforcers Immediate and delayed reinforcers Humans will respond to delayed reinforcers Paycheck at the end of the week Animals only respond to immediate reinforcers

Punishment Any consequence that decreases a behavior Positive punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus Spankings Negative punishment: Taking away a desirable stimulus Grounding for the weekend

Punishment Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten Punishment teaches discrimination Punishment can teach fear Physical punishment may increase aggressiveness by modeling aggression

Reinforcement Schedules Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs Learning and extinction both happen rapidly Partial reinforcement: Reinforcing a behavior part of the time Slower learning and extinction

Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response after a specified time Fixed-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after a specified number of responses Coffee shop rewards a free drink after ten purchases Variable-ratio schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses Slot machines Fixed-interval schedule: Reinforces a response after a specified time Checking the mailbox Variable-interval schedule: Reinforces a response after an unpredictable amount of time Pop quizzes

Skinner’s Legacy Believed that external influences, not internal thoughts and feelings, shape behavior Encouraged people to use principals of operant conditioning to influence each other’s behavior Skinner’s critics believed that these beliefs dehumanized people

Classical Conditioning Classical vs. Operant Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Associations between two stimuli Associations between an organism’s own behavior and consequences Natural responses Organisms “operate” on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli UCS and CS presented TOGETHER Reward/Punishment comes AFTER behavior

Biology and classical conditioning Natural selection favors traits that enhance survival (Evolutionary approach) Taste aversion: We avoid foods that we associate with illness We avoid situations that we associate with danger Classical conditioning is biologically adaptive

Biology and Operant Conditioning Organisms can only be conditioned to perform actions that fall within their natural behaviors. Organisms are predisposed to learn behaviors that are naturally adaptive Food

Cognition and Classical Conditioning Early behaviorists did not focus on cognition Cognition can be involved in classical conditioning Patients learning to overcome alcoholism receive drinks laced with nausea- inducing drugs, but still understand that the drug causes nausea, not the drink Animals can learn the predictability of events Pavlov’s dogs/food

Cognition and Operant Conditioning Cognitive maps and latent learning Rats exploring a maze without rewards learn the layout Demonstrate learning when experimenter places food at the end of the maze Insight learning: Sudden realization of the answer to a problem Motivation Intrinsic motivation stronger than extrinsic motivation

Learning and Personal Control Learning behaviors to relieve stress Problem-focused coping: Changing the stressor or how we interact with the stressor Emotion-focused coping: Avoiding/ignoring stressor and attending to emotional needs Belief that we cannot change the situation

Learning and Personal Control Learned helplessness: Hopelessness and passive resignation an organism learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

Learning and Personal Control Internal locus of control: Perception that you control your own fate External locus of control: Perception that chance or outside forces beyond your control determine your own fate

Review A difficult test is coming up. How would a person with each view respond? Internal locus of control External locus of control I need to focus on studying this week to get the best grade possible It doesn’t matter if I study or not. I am going to fail anyway.

Biopsychosocial Influences on Learning Biological influences Genetic predispositions, unconditioned responses, adaptive responses Psychological influences Previous experiences, predictability, generalization, discrimination Social-cultural influences Culturally learned preferences, motivation

Observational Learning Learning by observing others Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Mirror Neurons Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions OR when observing another doing those actions Neurons that fire when a monkey grabs something also fire in another monkey who is watching Humans empathize with the feelings of others

Albert Bandura

Bobo Doll Experiment Children watched an adult model beat up a Bobo doll (punching, kicking, throwing, etc.). Children then brought into a room filled with a few toys and a Bobo doll. Children who viewed the adult model’s actions were more likely to act violently toward the Bobo doll.

Prosocial and Antisocial Effects Prosocial behavior: Positive, constructive, and helpful Antisocial behavior: Violent, destructive Prosocial and antisocial behaviors can both be learned through observation