Early Societies in Southwest Asia and the Indo-European Migrations Chapter 2

Chapter Overview (Part 1) Because of the agricultural transition, societies could sustain larger populations and could become increasingly complex. Thus urban societies emerged in the fourth millennium B.C.E., particularly in the region known as Mesopotamia ("the land between the rivers") along the fertile river valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates. Some of the world's earliest cities developed and prospered in that region. Mesopotamian prosperity and sophisticated culture attracted many migrants and influenced many neighbors, including the Hebrews, the Phoenicians, and the Indo-Europeans. Characteristics of Mesopotamian societies included the following:

Chapter Overview (Part 2) Governmental institutions were established to provide order and stability and to resolve disputes. These institutions evolved into hereditary kingships and, at times, into empires when states sought to expand their dominion to neighboring lands. Social classes emerged as the result of specialization of labor and accumulation of wealth. The agricultural surplus and the accompanying specialization allowed individuals and groups to produce goods of high quality. The desire for these goods, in turn, helped to stimulate trade with other societies, greatly expanding intercultural contact. Distinctive cultural traditions developed, including a system of writing that would endure for thousands of years, and more elaborate religious institutions than had previously existed.

Defining “Civilization” Urban Political/military system Social classes Economic specialization Religion Communication “Higher Culture”

Civilization & Means of Production Concentration of Wealth Agriculture Control over natural resources Development of ancient civilization not hunter-gatherer economics

Mesopotamia “Between the Rivers” Contemporary Iran, Iraq Tigris and Euphrates Contemporary Iran, Iraq Cultural continuum of “fertile crescent”

The Wealth of the Rivers Fertile Soil Irrigation Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Required support of large groups Led to creation of local government Rather than large “Countries”, City-states develop Wealth, land = attracts settlers, influences/creates culture

Development of City-States Cities appear around 4000 BCE Controlled Sumerian region from 3200-2350 BCE Ziggurat (temple) = the god’s home Divine mandate to Kings Kings rule by will of the gods Regulated trade between cities Provided for common defense from nomadic bandits

Sumer Faces Political Fall Semitic groups from the north overwhelm Sumer Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 BCE) Systematic destruction of Sumerian city-states, created own empire Faced similar defensive concerns, continuous rebellion Hammurabi - Babylon (1792-1750 BCE) Improved tax policies, legislated code of laws Used government officials to maintain control of city-states from within

The Code of Hammurabi The Code of Hammurabi (18th c. BCE) 282 ‘laws’ Based on social status, offered punishments women were considered property but held some basic rights “If a man knock out the teeth of his equal, his teeth shall be knocked out.”

Later Mesopotamian Empires Weakening of central rule an invitation to foreign invaders Assyrians use new iron weaponry Beginning 1300 BCE, by 8th-7th centuries BCE control Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine, most of Egypt Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (r. 605-562) takes advantage of internal dissent to create Chaldean (New Babylonian) Empire Famously luxurious capital The Hanging Gardens Seven Wonders of the Ancient World Nebuchadnezzar by William Blake

Mesopotamian Empires - 1800-600 BCE

Technology in Mesopotamia Use of bronze  ~4000 BCE Copper and tin Weapons, farming implements Iron, ~1000 BCE Cheap to produce Wheel = chariot/ships, c. 3500 BCE Shipbuilding increases range of influence, (Diffusion = more trade opportunities)

Social Classes Upper class based on military success and/or religion May have been elected, or passed down (hereditary) Believed to be descendants of gods Religious classes Role: intervention with gods to ensure fertility, safety Wealth through land ownership, trade, etc. Free commoners Farmers City workers Slaves Criminals, POWs, debtors

Patriarchal Society Patriarchy – A system of society and/or government in which men hold the power, and women are largely excluded (but not completely, usually). Double standard of sexual morality (Hammurabi’s Code) Some opportunities for women Court advisers, priestess, economic activity Introduction of the veil at least c. 1500 BCE

Development of Writing Sumerian writing develops ~3500 BCE Pictographs Cuneiform: “wedge-shaped” Used clay as medium Greek alphabet eventually replaces ~400 BCE Writing was used for: Trade Mathematics Time Astronomy

Mesopotamian Literature Epic of Gilgamesh, c. ~2100 BCE The earliest surviving important work of literature Epic Poem Search for meaning of life esp. afterlife What does the existence of this work tell us about life in Mesopotamia?

The Hebrews Began as pastoral nomads, settled ~1850 BCE Patriarch - Abraham Similarity between biblical text, Hammurabi Retaliation as punishment Early settlement of Canaan (Israel), c. 1300 BCE Biblical text: slavery in Egypt, divine redemption Continuous conflict with others in Palestine King David (1000-970 BCE) Solomon (970-930 BCE)

Moses and Monotheism Hebrews shared polytheistic beliefs of other Mesopotamian civilizations Introduces monotheism: belief in one god Denies existence of competing parallel deities Personal god: reward and punishment for conformity with revealed law The Torah (“the teaching”)

Foreign conquests of Israel Civil war Northern tribes: Israel Southern: Judah Assyrian conquest, 722 BCE Exiles Israel: ten lost tribes Babylonian conquest, 586 BCE Additional exile of many residents of Judah Returned later than century

Israel and Phoenicia, 1500-600 BCE

The Phoenicians City-states along Mediterranean coast after 3000 BCE Extensive maritime trade Dominated Mediterranean trade, 1200-800 BCE Development of alphabet symbols Simpler alternative to cuneiform Spread of literacy

Indo-European Migrations Common roots of many languages of Europe, southwest Asia, India Suggests influence of one Indo-European people Probable original homeland: contemporary Ukraine and Russia, 4500-2500 BCE Domesticates horses, uses of Sumerian weapons allowed great expansion

The Indo-European Migrations

Results of Indo-European Migration Hittites migrate to central Anatolia (Turkey) ~1900 BCE Eventually conquer Babylonia Influence on technology/trade (Diffusion) Horses, ‘war’ chariots, use of Iron Migrations to western China, Greece, Italy Influence on language and culture Aryo, “noble, lord” Aryan, Iranian, Irish Caste system in India (hereditary class system)