Chapter 10 Measurement and Attitude Scaling

LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter, you should be able to Explain what needs to be measured to address a research question or hypothesis Define operationalization Distinguish levels of scale measurement Explain the need for index or composite measures List the three criteria for good measurement Explain the significance of scale reliability and validity Describe how marketing researchers think of attitudes

LEARNING OUTCOMES (cont’d) After studying this chapter, you should be able to Identify basic approaches to measuring attitudes Discuss the use of rating scales for measuring attitudes Represent a latent construct by constructing a summated scale Summarize ways to measure attitudes with ranking and sorting techniques

What Do I Measure Measurement Concept Operational Definition The process of describing some property of a phenomenon of interest, usually by assigning numbers in a reliable and valid way. Concept A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes Operational Definition Specifies what the researcher must do to measure the concept under investigation

EXHIBIT 10.1 Are There Any Validity Issues with this Measurement?

Operational Definitions Operationalization The process of identifying scales that correspond to variance in a concept to be involved in a research process. Scales A device providing a range of values that correspond to different values in a concept being measured. Correspondence rules Indicate the way that a certain value on a scale corresponds to some true value of a concept.

Operational Definitions (cont’d) Variable Anything that varies or changes from one instance to another; can exhibit differences in value, usually in magnitude or strength, or in direction. Constructs Concepts measured with multiple variables.

EXHIBIT 10.2 Media Skepticism: An Operational Definition

Levels of Scale Measurement A series of items arranged along a continuous spectrum of values for the purpose of quantification. Properties: uniquely classify, preserve order, set equal intervals, and have a natural zero. Types of Scales Nominal: classifies/identifies by a quality of the object Ordinal: classifies using a ranking order of objects Interval: quantifies objects in order on a continuum Ratio: classifies by comparison to a standard Categorical: classifies by a specific characteristic

EXHIBIT 10.3 Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Scales Provide Different Information

EXHIBIT 10.4 Facts About the Four Levels of Scales

EXHIBIT 10.4 Facts About the Four Levels of Scales (cont’d)

Index Measures Attributes Index Measures Composite Measures Single characteristics or fundamental features that pertain to an object, person, or issue. Index Measures Assign a value based on how much of the concept being measured is associated with an observation. Indexes often are formed by putting several variables together. Composite Measures Assign a value to an observation based on a mathematical derivation of multiple variables.

Three Criteria for Good Measurement Reliability Validity Good Measurement Sensitivity

Reliability versus Validity The degree to which measures are free from random error and therefore yield consistent results. An indicator of a measure’s internal consistency. Validity The accuracy of a measure or the extent to which a score truthfully represents a concept. Does a scale to measure what was intended to be measured?

EXHIBIT 10.5 Reliability and Validity on Target

Measurement Accuracy: Sensitivity A measurement instrument’s ability to accurately measure variability in stimuli or responses. Composite measures allow for a greater range of possible scores, they are more sensitive than single-item scales. Sensitivity is generally increased by adding more response points or adding scale items.

Attitudes in Marketing Research An enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given to various aspects of the world. Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs “Hypothetical construct” describes a latent or unobservable variable that is measurable only by an indirect means such as verbal expression or overt behavior—attitudes are considered to be such variables.

Components of an Attitude Affective Cognitive Attitude Behavioral

Components of an Attitude Affective Component The feelings or emotions toward an object Cognitive Component Knowledge and beliefs about an object Behavioral Component Predisposition to action Intentions Behavioral expectations

Techniques for Measuring Attitudes Choosing a preferred alternative Ranking in order of preference Rating in order of magnitude Sorting to arrange or classify Measuring Attitudes

Attitude Measuring Processes Ranking Requiring the respondent to rank order objects in overall performance on the basis of a characteristic or stimulus. Rating Asking the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses by indicating on a scale where he or she would rate an object.

Attitude Measuring Processes Sorting Presenting the respondent with several concepts typed on cards and requiring the respondent to arrange the cards into a number of piles or otherwise classify the concepts. Choice Asking a respondent to choose one alternative from among several alternatives; it is assumed that the chosen alternative is preferred over the others.

Attitude Rating Scales Simple Attitude Scale Requires that an individual agree/disagree with a statement or respond to a single question. This type of self-rating scale classifies respondents into one of two categories (e.g.; yes or no). Example: THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION _______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Category Scale A more sensitive measure than a simple scale in that it can have more than two response categories. Question construction is an extremely important factor in increasing the usefulness of these scales. Example: How important were the following in your decision to visit San Diego? (check one for each item) VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________ COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________ FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________ EDUCATIONAL/HISTORICAL ASPECTS ___________ ___________ ___________ FAMILIARITY WITH AREA ___________ ___________ ___________

EXHIBIT 10.6 Selected Category Scales

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Method for Summated Ratings: Likert Scale A popular means for measuring attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements. Typical response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”, “disagree”, and “strongly disagree”. Example: It is more fun to play a tough, competitive tennis match than to play an easy one. ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

EXHIBIT 10.7 Likert Scale Items for Measuring Attitudes toward Patients’ Interaction with a Physician’s Service Staff Source: Stephen W. Brown and Teresa A. Swarts, “A Gap Analysis of Professional Service Quality,” Journal of Marketing, April 1989, p. 95.

Attitude Rating Scales Techniques Reverse Recoding A method of making sure all the items forming a composite scale are scored in the same direction. Negative items can be recoded into the equivalent responses for a non-reverse coded item.

Attitude Rating Scales Techniques Composite Scale A way of representing a latent construct by summing or averaging respondents’ reactions to multiple items each assumed to indicate the latent construct. Item Analysis Ensures that final items evoke a wide response and discriminate among those subjects with positive and negative attitudes. Only a set of items showing good reliability and validity should be summed or averaged to form a composite scale representing a hypothetical construct.

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Semantic Differential A series of seven-point rating scales with bipolar adjectives, such as “good” and “bad”, anchoring the ends (or poles) of the scale. A weight is assigned to each position on the scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3. Example: Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Calm Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Dull Simple ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex Passive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

EXHIBIT 10.8 Semantic Differential Scales for Measuring Attitudes toward Supermarkets Source: Julie H. Yu, Gerald Albaum, and Michael Swenson, “Is a Central Tendency Error Inherent in the Use of Semantic Differential Scales in Different Cultures?” International Journal of Market Research, Summer 2003, downloaded from Business & Company Resource Center, http://galenet.galegroup.com.

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Image Profile A graphic representation of semantic differential data for competing brands, products, or stores to highlight comparisons. Because the data are assumed to be interval, either the arithmetic mean or the median will be used to compare the profile of one product, brand, or store with that of a competing product, brand, or store.

EXHIBIT 10.9 Image Profile of Commuter Airlines versus Major Airlines Source: J. Richard Jones and Sheila I. Cocke, “A Performance Evaluation of Commuter Airlines: The Passengers’ View,” Proceedings: Transportation Research Forum 22 (1981), p. 524. Reprinted with permission.

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Numerical Scales Scales that have numbers as response options, rather than “semantic space” or verbal descriptions, to identify categories (response positions). In practice, researchers have found that a scale with numerical labels for intermediate points on the scale is as effective a measure as the true semantic differential. Example: Now that you’ve had your automobile for about one year, please tell us how satisfied you are with your Ford Taurus. Extremely Dissatisfied 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Extremely Satisfied

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Stapel Scale Uses a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. Tends to be easier to conduct and administer than a semantic differential scale. Example: Measuring a Store’s Image Store Name +3 +2 +1 <Wide Selection> -1 -2 -3 Based on the strength of your belief, select a minus number if you disagree with the adjective, or select a positive number if you agree with the adjective.

EXHIBIT 10.10 A Stapel Scale for Measuring a Store’s Image Source: Dennis Menezes and Norbert F. Elbert, “Alternative Semantic Scaling Formats for Measuring Store Image: An Evaluation,” Journal of Marketing Research, February 1979, pp. 80–87. Reprinted by permission of the American Marketing Association.

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Constant-sum Scale Respondents are asked to divide a constant sum to indicate the relative importance of attributes Respondents often sort cards, but the task may also be a rating task (e.g., indicating brand preference). Example: Divide 100 points among each of the following brands according to your preference for the brand: Brand A _________ Brand B _________ Brand C _________

Attitude Rating Scales (cont’d) Graphic Rating Scale A measure of attitude that allows respondents to rate an object by choosing any point along a graphic continuum. Advantage: allows the researcher to choose any interval desired for scoring purposes. Disadvantage: there are no standard answers. Thurstone Scale Judges assign scale values to attitudinal statements and subjects are asked to respond to these statements.

EXHIBIT 10.11 Graphic Rating Scale

EXHIBIT 10.12 A Ladder Scale

EXHIBIT 10.13 Graphic Rating Scale with Picture Response Categories Stressing Visual Communication

EXHIBIT 10.14 Summary of Advantages and Disadvantages of Rating Scales

Measuring Behavioral Intention Behavioral Component The behavioral expectations (expected future actions) of an individual toward an attitudinal object. Buying intention: the behavioral tendency to seek additional information, or plans to visit a showroom. Example: How likely is it that you will purchase an mp3 player? I definitely will buy I probably will buy I might buy I probably will not buy I definitely will not buy

Measuring Behavioral Intention (cont’d) Behavioral Differential Measures the behavioral intentions of subjects towards any object or category of objects. A description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions toward this object on a series of scales. Example: A 25 year-old woman sales representative Would ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would Not ask this person for advice.

Ranking Paired Comparison A measurement technique that involves presenting the respondent with two objects and asking the respondent to pick the preferred object; more than two objects may be presented, but comparisons are made in pairs. Example: I would like to know your overall opinion of two brands of adhesive bandages. They are MedBand and Super-Aid. Overall, which of these two brands—MedBand or Super-Aid—do you think is the better one? Or are both the same? MedBand is better _____ Super-Aid is better _____ They are the same _____

Sorting Sorting Tasks Example: Require that respondents indicate their attitudes or beliefs by arranging items on the basis of perceived similarity or some other attribute. Example: Here is a sheet that lists several airlines. Next to the name of each airline is a pocket. Here are ten cards. I would like you to put these cards in the pockets next to the airlines you would prefer to fly on your next trip. Assume that all of the airlines fly to wherever you would choose to travel. You can put as many cards as you want next to an airline, or you can put no cards next to an airline. Cards American Airlines _____ Delta Airlines _____ United Airlines _____ Southwest Airlines _____ Northwest Airlines _____

Key Terms and Concepts Measurement Concept Operationalization Scales Correspondence rules Construct Nominal scales Ordinal scales Interval scales Ratio scales Attribute Index measure Composite measures Reliability Validity Sensitivity Attitude Hypothetical construct Ranking Rating Sorting Choice Category scale Likert scale

Key Terms and Concepts (cont’d) Reverse recoding Composite scale Semantic differential Image profile Numerical scale Stapel scale Constant-sum scale Graphic rating scale Behavioral differential Paired comparison