LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 12 A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT Gender and Sexuality John W. Santrock

Gender and Sexuality Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Gender Comparisons and Classification Gender Development through the Life Span Exploring Sexuality Sexuality through the Life Span

Gender and Sex Gender — social dimension of being female or male Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Gender and Sex Gender — social dimension of being female or male Gender role: set of expectations prescribing how females and males should act, feel, and think Gender typing: process by which children acquire thoughts, behaviors, and feelings culturally appropriate for their gender Sex — designates the biological aspects of being female or male

Biological Influences Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Biological Influences Chromosomes — 23rd pair with X and Y Hormones Estrogens Estradiol influences development of female physical sex characteristics and helps regulate menstrual cycle Androgens Testosterone promotes development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics

Biological Influences Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Biological Influences Examples of conditions from unusual levels of sex hormones early in development Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) Androgen-insensitive males Pelvic field defect Failed sex reassignment

Evolutionary Psychology View of Gender Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Evolutionary Psychology View of Gender Differing roles in reproduction placed different pressures on males and females Key gender differences in sexual attitudes and sexual behaviors Males — competition, violence, risk-taking Females — parenting effort, selection of successful mate

Social Influences Differences due to social experiences Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Social Influences Differences due to social experiences Social role theory: gender differences result from contrasting roles of men and women Psychoanalytic theory of gender: claims child identifies with same-sex parent by age 5 or 6 Many disagree, claiming gender learned much earlier (even in absence of same-sex parent)

Social Influences Differences due to social experiences Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Social Influences Differences due to social experiences Social cognitive theory of gender — gender development results from observation and imitation, use of rewards and punishments for gender-appropriate behaviors

Cognitive Influences Cognitive development theory of gender Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Cognitive Influences Cognitive development theory of gender Children’s gender typing occurs after they think of themselves as boys and girls; gender constancy must be achieved first Once consistently conceived as male or female, children prefer activities, objects, and attitudes consistent with this label

Cognitive Influences Gender schema theory Biological, Social, and Cognitive Influences on Gender Cognitive Influences Gender schema theory Gender typing emerges gradually in gender schemas of what is culturally gender-appropriate and inappropriate Gender-typed behavior can occur before children develop gender constancy Gender schemas fuel gender typing

Gender Comparisons and Classification Gender Stereotyping Broad categories that reflect our impressions and beliefs about females and males Traditional masculinity and femininity Males instrumental Females expressive Stereotyping varies with culture Stereotyping of occupations

Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations Gender Comparisons and Classification Young Children’s Judgments about Competency in Stereotyped Occupations Fig. 12.3

Gender Similarities and Differences Gender Comparisons and Classification Gender Similarities and Differences Physical differences Females have longer life expectancy Females less likely to develop mental or physical disorders Males have higher levels of stress hormones causing faster clotting and higher blood pressure

Gender Similarities and Differences Gender Comparisons and Classification Gender Similarities and Differences Physical differences Female brains are smaller, have more folds Part of hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in men Area of parietal lobe functioning in visuospatial skills is larger in males Areas of brain involved in emotional expression show more activity in females

Cognitive Similarities and Differences Gender Comparisons and Classification Cognitive Similarities and Differences Some claim males better at math and visuospatial skills and females better at verbal skills Others claim differences exaggerated National standardized tests Boys slightly better at math and science Girls better at reading and writing Overall, girls superior students to boys

Visuospatial Skills of Males and Females Gender Comparisons and Classification Visuospatial Skills of Males and Females Fig. 12.4

Socioemotional Similarities and Differences Gender Comparisons and Classification Socioemotional Similarities and Differences Aggression Males more physically aggressive in all cultures Females more verbally aggressive; use relational aggression more than men Self-Regulation Males show less self-regulation, can lead to behavioral problems Controversies over psychological differences

Socioemotional Similarities and Differences Gender Comparisons and Classification Socioemotional Similarities and Differences Gender in context Gender varies across contexts Males more likely to help in perceived danger Females more likely to volunteer to help with child Girls show more care-giving behaviors than boys Males more likely to show anger towards strangers and turn anger into aggression Cultural backgrounds influence socialization

Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny Gender Comparisons and Classification Masculinity, Femininity, and Androgyny Androgyny — presence of masculine and feminine characteristics in same individual Bem Sex-Role Inventory: Instrumental, expressive traits Context influencing gender role is adaptive Gender-role transcendence — people should be evaluated as persons, not in terms of femininity, masculinity, or androgyny

Bem’s Gender-Role Classification Gender Comparisons and Classification Bem’s Gender-Role Classification Fig. 12.5

Gender Development in Childhood Gender Development through the Life-Span Gender Development in Childhood Children form many ideas about what the sexes are like from about 1½ to 3 years of age Boys receive earlier and more intense gender socialization Children show clear preference for same-sex peers Gender roles becoming more flexible

Gender Development in Adolescence Gender Development through the Life-Span Gender Development in Adolescence Transition point; changes in puberty Gender-intensification hypothesis Psychological and behavioral differences between boys and girls become greater during early adolescence Increased socialization pressures to conform to traditional gender roles Mixed messages and special problems

Adulthood and Aging Women’s Gender Development Gender Development through the Life-Span Adulthood and Aging Women’s Gender Development Women often try to actively participate in others’ development Emotionally Intellectually Socially Women maintain competency, self-motivation, and self-determination in relationships

Communication Between Men and Women Gender Development through the Life-Span Communication Between Men and Women Rapport talk Language of conversation, a way to establish connections and negotiate relationships Preferred by women Report talk Language designed to give information, including public speaking Preferred by men

Adulthood and Aging Men’s gender development Gender Development through the Life-Span Adulthood and Aging Men’s gender development Male roles are contradictory and inconsistent Can cause role-strain in Health Male-female relationships Male-male relationships

Gender and Aging Parental imperative Gender Development through the Life-Span Gender and Aging Parental imperative Mothers and fathers adopt different gender roles so they can raise children more effectively Older women face double jeopardy of ageism and sexism Older men become more feminine, less active, and more sensitive in relationships

Biological and Cultural Factors Exploring Sexuality Biological and Cultural Factors Biological Sexual behavior is influenced by sex hormones Sexual behavior is so individualized in humans that it is difficult to specify hormonal effects Sexual motivation also influenced by cultural factors

Biological and Cultural Factors Exploring Sexuality Biological and Cultural Factors Cultural factors Range of sexual values across cultures is substantial Sexual scripts — stereotyped expectancy patterns for how people should behave sexually Traditional religious script — sex is accepted only within marriage; sex is for reproduction and sometimes affection Romantic script — sex synonymous with love

The 1994 Sex in America Survey Exploring Sexuality The 1994 Sex in America Survey Cohabiting (married) Noncohabiting Men Women 1% 2 to 3 times a week 3% Never A few times a year A few times a month 4 or more times a week Fig. 12.6

Sexual Orientation Heterosexual attitudes and behavior Exploring Sexuality Sexual Orientation Heterosexual attitudes and behavior Different categories for frequency of sex Married couples have sex more often Most couples enjoy traditional sex Adultery is exception, not the rule Men think about sex more than women Most lead conservative sexual lives

Sexual Orientation Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males Exploring Sexuality Sexual Orientation Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males Sexual orientation is on continuum Bisexual: sexually attracted to both sexes Research on biological and hormonal differences on sexual preferences unclear Area of hypothalamus governing sexual behavior 2x larger in heterosexual males

The Continuum of Sexual Orientation Exploring Sexuality The Continuum of Sexual Orientation 3 Largely heterosexual but more than incidental homosexualbehavior Exclusively heterosexual behavior 1 Largely heterosexual but incidental homosexualbehavior Equal amounts of heterosexual and homosexualbehavior 4 Largely homosexual but more than incidental heterosexualbehavior 5 Largely homosexual but incidental heterosexualbehavior 6 Exclusively homosexual behavior Fig. 12.7

Sexual Orientation Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males Exploring Sexuality Sexual Orientation Attitudes and behaviors of lesbians and gay males Gender differences appearing in heterosexual relationships also occurs in homosexual relationships Gay and lesbians experience life as minorities in dominant culture, with bicultural identity

Sexually Transmitted Infections Exploring Sexuality Sexually Transmitted Infections Gonorrhea Syphilis Chlamydia Genital Herpes HPV – causes genital warts AIDS – sexually-transmitted disease caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

Protecting Against STIs Exploring Sexuality Protecting Against STIs Education and development of effective drug treatments Only safe behavior is abstinence Know your and your partner’s risk status Obtain medical examinations Have protected, not unprotected, sex Don’t have sex with multiple partners

Forcible Sexual Behavior Exploring Sexuality Forcible Sexual Behavior Rape Forcible sexual intercourse without consent; legal definitions vary by state Victims reluctant to report rape; inaccurate stats Occurs more often in large cities; 200,000 rapes reported annually in U.S. Date or acquaintance rape of concern in colleges

Exploring Sexuality Sexual Harassment Ranging from remarks to physical contact, blatant propositions to sexual assaults Most victims are women in educational and workplace settings Has serious psychological effects on victim One person’s manifestation of power over another

Rape Victim-Offender Relationships Exploring Sexuality Rape Victim-Offender Relationships 50 40 30 20 10 Friend Percentage of sample Classmate Boyfriend/ ex-boyfriend Acquaintance Offender Other Fig. 12.8

Child Sexuality Majority of children engage in some sex play Sexuality through the Life-Span Child Sexuality Majority of children engage in some sex play Usually with friends or siblings Exhibiting or inspecting the genitals Most motivated by curiosity Sex play declines, but sexual interest remains high in elementary school years

Adolescent Sexuality Adolescence Sexuality through the Life-Span Adolescent Sexuality Adolescence Time of sexual exploration, experimentation, fantasies, and incorporating sexuality into one’s identity Most have insatiable curiosity about sex Majority develop mature sexual identity; most have times of vulnerability and confusion Societies vary in response to adolescent sexuality

Developing a Sexual Identity Sexuality through the Life-Span Developing a Sexual Identity Multifaceted challenge to manage new feelings, develop identity and self-regulation Great variety in orientations, interest levels, anxiety levels, activity, and reasons for choices in activity Gay or lesbian identity: coming-out Homosexual behavior in adolescence may not continue into adulthood

Adolescent Sexual Behaviors Sexuality through the Life-Span Adolescent Sexual Behaviors Typical progression of sexual behavior Kissing, followed by petting Intercourse, or oral sex (increased substantially) Males report being active before females Most have sexual intercourse by mid-teens Timing of sexual initiation varies widely by country and gender

Risk Factors, Youth Assets, and Sexual Problems Sexuality through the Life-Span Risk Factors, Youth Assets, and Sexual Problems Personal risk factors Ineffective or lack of use of contraceptives Early maturation linked to early sexual initiation; varies by ethnic group Lack of self-regulation Contextual risk factors Family parenting and SES Neighborhood environment

Other Risks Sexually transmitted infections Adolescent pregnancy Sexuality through the Life-Span Other Risks Sexually transmitted infections Africa: girls infected with HIV by adult men Adolescent pregnancy U.S. adolescent pregnancy rates decreasing; but one of highest rates in developed world Cross-cultural studies on sexual active adolescents

Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Pregnancy Sexuality through the Life-Span Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Pregnancy Births per 1,000 women 15 to 19 years old 60 40 1975 80 20 1990 1970 1980 1995 2000 Year 1985 Fig. 12.10

Decreasing U.S. Adolescent Pregnancy Rates Sexuality through the Life-Span Decreasing U.S. Adolescent Pregnancy Rates Greatest decline in 1990s Increased contraceptive use Fear of STIs Education and health classes Economic prosperity in 1990s Greatest drop in African American girls aged 15-17 Latin American girls most likely to get pregnant

Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy Sexuality through the Life-Span Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy Health risks for mother and child Low birth rate in newborns linked to infant mortality, neurological problems, childhood illness Young mothers more likely to Drop out of school; were low achievers in school Have history of conduct problems Come from low-income backgrounds Live in poverty

Sexuality and Aging Middle adulthood Sexuality through the Life-Span Sexuality and Aging Middle adulthood Climacteric — midlife transition in which fertility ends or declines Women — Menopause late forties or early fifties Men — less testosterone, less desire, possible erectile dysfunction (Viagra) Ability to function slows little, frequency drops

Sexuality and Aging Late adulthood Sexuality through the Life-Span Sexuality and Aging Late adulthood Men experience more changes than women Orgasm less frequent More direct stimulation needed Erection problems more likely after 65 Sexuality can be lifelong Two-thirds of older adults satisfied

12 The End