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Thinking, Language and Intelligence

Thought Cognition—mental activities involved in acquiring, retaining, and using knowledge Thinking—manipulation of mental representations to draw inferences and conclusions Mental image—representation of objects or events that are not present

Concepts Concept—mental category of objects or ideas based on shared properties Formal concept—mental category formed by learning rules Natural concept—mental category formed by everyday experience

Examples of Concepts Formal concept—follows rigid rules, not usually intuitive (A polygon is….) Natural concept—results from everyday experience (Some mammals are….)

Problem Solving Strategies Discovering Psy p.245 Trial and error

Problem Solving Strategies y + z = r2 Algorithm

Problem Solving Strategies Heuristic—strategy that involves following a general rule of thumb to reduce the number of possible solutions

Insight and Intuition Insight—sudden realization about how a problem can be solved Intuition—coming to a conclusion without conscious awareness of thought processes involved

Functional Fixedness type of mental set inability to see an object as having a function other than its usual one key words: functional fixedness; mental set; problem solving Some examples of overcoming functional fixedness include: 1. Using a dime to unscrew something when a screwdriver cannot be found. 2. Using a book to prop open a door when a doorstop cannot be found. 3. Before a baseball game, a rainstorm occurred. They wanted to dry the field a little before beginning play, so they had a helicopter hover above the field, and the rotating helicopter blades acted as a fan and helped dry up the field.

Nine dots problem Without lifting your pencil or re-tracing any line, draw four straight lines that connect all nine dots key words: mental sets; problem solving; nine dots problem

Nine dots mental set Most people will not draw lines that extend from the square formed by the nine dots To solve the problem, you have to break your mental set key words: mental sets; problem solving; nine dots problem

Mounting candle problem Using only the objects present on the right, attach the candle to the bulletin board in such a way that the candle can be lit and will burn properly key words: functional fixedness, mental set; problem solving Although students can work on this problem by simply thinking and visualizing a solution in their heads, this demonstration works better by by bringing the actual materials to class and doing a live demonstration with your students, letting them attemtp to solve the problem through trial and error. To do this task you need the folllowing materials: 1. a cork bulletin board 2. a book of matches 3. a candle 4. a BOX of thumbtacks - make sure you keep the thumbtacks in a BOX - also make sure the thumbtacks aren't too big that they can pass through your candle. The smaller the thumb tack, the better

Answer to candle problem Most people do not think of using the box for anything other than its normal use (to hold the tacks) To solve the problem, you have to overcome functional fixedness key words: functional fixedness; mental sets; problem solving

Mental Set Q: Why couldn’t you solve the previous problems? A: Mental set—a well-established habit of perception or thought

Decision Making Single feature model—make a decision by focusing on only one feature Additive model—systematically evaluate the important features of each alternative Elimination-by-aspects—rate choices based on features. Eliminate those that do not meet the desired criteria, despite other desirable characteristics.

Availability Heuristic Judge probability of an event by how easily you can recall previous occurrences of that event Most will overestimate deaths from natural disasters because disasters are frequently on TV Most will underestimate deaths from asthma because they don’t make the local news key words: availability heuristic

Representative Heuristic Judge probability of an event based on how it matches a prototype Can be good But can also lead to errors Most will overuse this strategy key words: representativeness heuristic

Bias Effects Confirmation bias—only search for information confirming one’s hypothesis Belief bias—accept only information that conforms to beliefs Fallacy of positive instances—remember uncommon events that confirm our beliefs Overestimation—tendency to overestimate rarity of events key words: inductive reasoning; confirmation bias

Strategies for solving problems 1. Break mental sets 2. Find useful analogy 3. Represent information efficiently 4. Find shortcuts 5. Establish sub-goals 6. Turn ill-defined problems into well-defined problems key words: functional fixedness; mental sets; problem solving; finding analogies; shortcuts; heuristics; subgoals; ill-defined problems; well-defined problems

Language Language and thinking Language and social perception Language and gender bias Animal communication

Language and Thinking Language is a system for combining arbitrary symbols to produce an infinite number of meaningful statements

Characteristics of Language Connection between word and symbol usually arbitrary Meaning of symbols is shared among speakers of the language Has syntax--set of specific structural rules Is generative--can create infinite number of phrases Displacement--can communicate meaningfully about things that are not present

Animal Communication Animals clearly communicate with each other, but is that language? Some primates that have been trained demonstrate the same level of language comprehension as that of an average 2 1/2-year-old child Non-primates can also acquire some language abilities, i.e., dolphins, parrots

Animal cognition—Do animals “think”? Do they have “self-awareness”? Hockenbury dp3 p272 and 273

Intelligence Global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment

Measuring Intelligence Alfred Binet Mental age Chronological age IQ—comparison of people in similar age groups Hockenbury Discovering psy p257

Alfred Binet (1857–1911) Intelligence—collection of higher-order mental abilities loosely related to one another Did not rank “normal” students according to the scores Intelligence is nurtured Binet-Simon Test developed in France, 1905

Modern Intelligence Tests The Stanford-Binet Scale modification of the original Binet-Simon, bu Lewis Terman at Stanford university intelligence quotient (IQ)—child’s mental age divided by child’s chronological age

Group Intelligence Testing Began during WWI when the army had to screen millions of army recruits Army Alpha--given to people who could read Army Beta--given to people who could not read Adapted for civilian use, but widely misused

Wechsler Intelligence Tests Used more widely now than Stanford-Binet Modeled after Binet’s, adult test called WAIS Consisted of several subtests Reflected belief that intelligence involves different strengths and weaknesses

WAIS Scales Test measured several abilities Performance scales--nonverbal abilities Verbal scales--vocabulary, comprehension, and other verbal tasks Sub-scales gave the WAIS practical and clinical value

Types of Tests Achievement test—designed to measure level of knowledge, skill, or accomplishment in a particular area Aptitude test—designed to measure capability to benefit from education or training Interest test—measures self-reported vocational interests and skills

Qualities of Good Tests Standardized—administered to large groups of people under uniform conditions to establish norms Reliable—ability to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions Valid—ability to measure what the test is intended to measure

Standardized Scoring of Wechsler Tests All raw scores converted to standardized scores Normal distribution Mean of 100 Standard deviation of 15 50 70 85 100 115 130 145 2.14% 13.59% 34.13% 0.13% 95.44% 68.26% Wechsler IQ score Number of score figure taken from CD-ROM, Gray text, pg. 363, figure 10.5

How valid are IQ tests? Validity—test measures what it’s intended to measure Does test correlate with other measures of same construct? School achievement IQ tests (i.e., S-B and the Wechsler) correlate highly but they were designed to test what you learn in school Prestigious positions On-the-job performance & other work-related variables

What do IQ tests measure about your mind? Mental speed and span of working memory typically use a digit span test to measure this more recent studies find significant correlations between reaction times and IQ scores Why is this important? mental quickness may expand capacity of working memory I have already used digit span tests in my lectures during the memory chapter, but an instructor who has not done so may choose to include a demonstration of digit span/working memory here.

Theories of Intelligence Charles Spearman—“g” factor Louis Thurstone—intelligence as a person’s “pattern” of mental abilities Howard Gardner—multiple intelligences Sternberg–triarchic theory

Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Discovering Psy Fig 7.7 page 263

Robert Sternberg Analytic intelligence—mental processes used in learning how to solve problems Creative intelligence—ability to deal with novel situations by drawing on existing skills and knowledge Practical intelligence—ability to adapt to the environment (street smarts)

Nature vs. Nurture in IQ Are differences between people due to environmental or genetic differences? Misunderstanding the question “Is a person’s intelligence due more to genes or to environment?” both genes & intelligence crucial for any trait Clearly, IQ is not the only psychological construct for which this debate applies, and instructors may wish to take a moment to name the other areas (i.e., personality, mental disorders, etc.) for which heritability is hotly debated.

Heredity and Environment Heritability degree to which variation in trait stems from genetic, rather than environmental, differences among individuals Environment degree to which variation is due to environmental rather than genetic differences

Twin Studies & Family Influence If trait genetic: closely related more similar than less closely related Many close relatives share environments too Types of studies to separate effects monozygotic twins reared together monozygotic twins reared apart siblings/dizygotic reared together siblings/dizygotic reared apart adoptive siblings reared together MSClip art Discussion here about the higher correlation between identical twins’ IQ scores than fraternal twins’ and whether siblings were reared together or apart and the genetic role then in intelligence

Racial Difference in IQ Racial difference in average IQ among different racial groups can be measured More variation in IQ scores within a particular group than between groups

Within and Between Group Differences Each corn field planted from same package of genetically diverse seeds One field is quite fertile, the other is not Within each field, differences due to genetics Between each field, differences due to environment (fertility)

What are some of the problems with IQ tests (and other standardized tests)

Other Influences on IQ Scores Cross cultural studies show that average IQ of groups subject to social discrimination are often lower than socially dominant group even if there is no racial difference Tests reflect the culture in which they are developed; cultural factors also influence test taking behavior (culture bias)

Creativity To enhance your creativity Creativity as a goal Reinforce creative behavior Engage in problem finding Acquire relevant knowledge Try different approaches Exert effort and expect setbacks MS Clip art Gallery