Are Men Better Visualizers? Nora S. Newcombe Temple University

Sex Differences Are Real Mental rotation Horizontality and verticality Mechanical reasoning

Sex Differences Are Evident at Four Years Frequency Spatial Transformation Score Levine, Huttenlocher, Taylor & Langrock (1999)

Sex Differences May Be Relevant to Geoscience Education

Predicting B.A. Degree Areas Shea, Lubinski & Benbow (2001)

Two Unwarranted Assumptions Biological causation Immutability

A Powerful Case for Biological Differences? Cross-cultural universality Systematic relationships with differences in prenatal hormone levels Systematic relationships with changes in current hormone levels Lack of measured differences in parenting practices or social expectations (other than those caused by actual differences between boys and girls) Greater male variability Sociobiology

Many of These Propositions Can Be Questioned Relations to prenatal hormone levels are hard top find, e.g., CAH research Sociobiology story can be critiqued Universality can be questioned

Sex- and SES-Linked Differences Exist and Interact 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Low Middle High SES Percentage Correct Boys Girls Chance

Is Causation of Sex Differences the Right Question? A more important questions is, if there is a sex-linked spatial skill, is it a fixed ability or a potential to benefit from experience? If people can benefit from experience, what are the limits of male and female reaction ranges? Analogies to historical change in Height Longevity

Can Spatial Skills Be Increased? YES! Effects of practice and training simple instructions school Flynn effect

Training Effects on Transfer Tasks p<.02 p<.01 n.s.

Conclusion We must educate to enhance spatial visualization in all students