The Development of Children, Seventh Edition Cynthia Lightfoot, Michael Cole, and Sheila R. Cole Chapter 3: Prenatal Development and Birth

Chapter Overview The Periods of Prenatal Development Maternal Conditions and Prenatal Development Teratogens: Environmental Sources of Birth Defects Birth The Newborn’s Condition Beginning the Parent-Child Relationship

I. The Period of Prenatal Development Prenatal Development is divided into three broad periods: Germinal Period Embryonic Period Fetal Period

Germinal Period Begins at conception Lasts until the zygote enters the uterus and becomes implanted (8 to 10 days after conception) Organism has grown from a single cell to hundreds of cells

Embryonic Period Begins at implantation Lasts until the end of the 8th week All major organs have taken primitive shape Sexual differentiation has begun The placenta allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products between the mother and the embryo.

Fetal Period Begins at the 9th week Lasts until birth The fetus dramatically grows in weight and length. The brain and all organ systems increase in complexity. By 15 weeks the fetus exhibits all movements observable at birth.

Fetal Period Basic sensory capacities developing Example: sensing motion, light, sound Environmental influences from outside and inside the mother can affect fetal development. Example: mother’s diet and illnesses

I. Apply – Connect – Discuss After reviewing the distinction between continuity and discontinuity presented in Chapter 1, discuss the ways in which prenatal development and activity are both continuous and discontinuous.

II. Maternal Conditions and Prenatal Development Two environmental conditions affecting prenatal development: Mother’s attitude towards her pregnancy or stress during the pregnancy Mother’s nutrition

Maternal Attitudes and Stress A mother’s attitude towards a pregnancy Effects of a negative attitude Low birth weight Longer-term developmental risks A mother’s stress Immediate effects of elevated levels of the hormone cortisol

Influences of Mother’s Nutrition A mother’s nutrition is an important factor in fetal development. Recommended food intake: consume enough calories in a well-balanced diet increase intake of folic acid, calcium, and iron.

Influences of Mother’s Nutrition Effects of extreme undernourishment, and malnutrition Low birth weight, premature birth, abnormalities, and death Effects of lesser degrees of poor nutrition Increase risk, although effects can be difficult to isolate

Influences of Mother’s Nutrition Effects of overnutrition Overweight in babies Later health risks Obesity Diaetes

II. Apply – Connect – Discuss Along with the famine in Leningrad during WWII, the famous Dutch famine of 1944 has provided a wealth of information for scientists interested in the effects of fetal malnourishment on subsequent development. Conduct some online research and explore some of the projects associated with the Dutch Famine Birth Cohort Study. What are some of the questions currently addressed by the study? What are some of the most recent findings?

III. Teratogens: Environmental Sources of Birth Defects Environmental agents that can cause deviations from normal development and can lead to abnormalities or death.

Teratogens Six general principles apply to all teratogens: The susceptibility of the organism depends on its developmental stage. A teratogen’s effects are likely to be specific to a particular organ. Individual organisms vary in their susceptibility to teratogens. The mother’s physiological state influences susceptibility to teratogens. The greater the concentration of a teratogenic agent, the greater the risk. Teratogens that have little or no effect on the mother can seriously affect the developing organism

Teratogens Common Teratogens: Drugs Including prescription drugs, caffeine, tobacco, alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, methamphetamine, heroin, and methadone Infections and other health conditions Including rubella and HIV Radiation or pollution at high levels

III Apply – Connect – Discuss Visit the Web site of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Explore their “One Test. Two Lives.” initiative. What is the goal of the initiative? How does the CDC hope to implement the initiative? What materials and tools have they developed to move the initiative forward?

IV. Birth The Stages of Labor Normally begins approximately 266 days after conception Proceeds through three stages Uterine contractions cause the cervix to dilate The baby is pushed through birth canal The baby is delivered and the afterbirth is delivered

Birth: Cultural Variations Childbirth Experiences: Be assisted by a physician or midwife in a hospital Be assisted by a midwife and/or others at home Unassisted birth Kung, Bajura(Nepal) Relatively rare

Childbirth in the United States 99% of babies are born in hospitals Most concerns centered around: How to safely deal with pain Medication Precautions to ensure the health of both mother and baby Medical interventions Alternative Approaches

The Baby’s Experience of Birth A stressful experience Surge of stress hormones May contribute to initiating birth Necessary for lungs to function properly Increase metabolic rate Induces state of alertness

IV. Apply – Connect – Discuss When it comes to prenatal care, labor, delivery, and newborn care, technologically advanced societies rely heavily on medical science. How would you characterize the culture of medical science (you may want to review the definition of culture presented in Chapter 2)? What are some of the costs and benefits of medical science for pregnant women and newborns?

V. The Newborn’s Condition Assessing the Baby’s Vitality The Apgar Scale Physical condition Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale Behavioral condition Primary Goal: Screening for infants at risk Secondary Goal: Predict aspects of future development

Physical Condition The Apgar Scale Assesses physical condition Factors rated: Heart rate Respiratory effort Muscle tone Reflex responsivity Color A low score requires immediate medical attention

Behavioral Condition Brazelton Neonatal Assessment Scale Assesses subtle behavioral aspects of newborn’s condition Includes tests of: Reflexes Motor capacities Muscle tone Responsiveness to objects and people Control of own behavior

Problems and Complications Prematurity Birth before the 37th week Immature lungs, digestive, or immune systems Low Birth Weight Below 5 pounds, 8 ounces (2500 grams) Intrauterine growth restrictions

V. Apply – Connect – Discuss Low birth weight is one of the leading causes of infant mortality. According to Dr. Alan Braunn, a professor of pediatrics at Emory University, birth weight is an important indicator of a community’s overall health status. In particular, Dr. Braunn argues that low birth weight signals an unhealthy community. In recent years, many Southern states have seen a shocking rise in the number of infant deaths.

V. Apply – Connect – Discuss Have birth weights and infant deaths in your community/state/province/nation changed in recent years? How does your community/state/province/nation compare to others on measures of infant birth weight and mortality? What community/state/province/national efforts are underway to increase birth weight and/or decrease infant death?

VI. Beginning the Parent-Child Relationship The Baby’s Appearance Can significantly influence the parents’ response to the baby Example: “babyness” (“cuteness”)

Social Expectations Parental expectations, influenced by the culture, influence the child’s environment in ways that shape the child’s development Example: the baby’s sex

VI. Apply – Connect – Discuss Provide some examples of how the relationship between the newborn’s characteristics and the care he or she receives is mediated by cultural beliefs and values (see Chapter 2).