Chapter 4 The Freudian Approach: Relevant Research
Dream interpretation Manifest content versus latent content Symbols representing unconscious thoughts, feelings, and desires Penis: tower, fountain, pencil, snake Vagina: cave, box, pouch, doorway Sexual intercourse: dancing, riding, climbing Male erection: flying, sailing a kite
Appearance of a current concern in dreams (Nikles et al., 1998)
Common beliefs about dreaming: True or false? Dreams last only a minute or two. Dreams occur only before waking. Many people dream rarely or not at all. The mental activity that occurs during non-REM sleep is simply the vestiges of the dreams that occur during REM sleep. People dream in proportion to the number and intensity of their personal problems (Freud and Adler). Dreams can’t hurt you. Research findings indicate that all of these beliefs are false.
Sleep labs
Cycles of sleep stages
Percentages of total sleep time spent in REM sleep Species % sleep time in REM Birds 1% Sheep 20% Humans 25% Cats 60%
Percentages of total sleep time in REM sleep for humans at different ages Age group % sleep time in REM Premature infant 80% (estimated) Full-term infant 50% 5-week-old infant 40% 3-year-old child 30% Typical adult 25% Elderly person 15%
Effects of different substances on REM sleep Alcohol Decreased REM Amphetamines Barbiturates Caffeine No effect LSD No effect or slightly increased REM Marijuana Unknown
Freudian defense mechanisms Repression: “the cornerstone on which the whole structure of psychoanalysis rests” Sublimation: “the only truly successful defense mechanism” Displacement: “channeling out impulses to a non-threatening object” Denial: “refusing to accept the reality of certain facts” Reaction formation: “acting in a manner opposite to our unconscious desires” Intellectualization: “removing the emotional content from the threatening idea” Projection: “attributing our unacceptable unconscious impulses to others instead of to ourselves”
The Rorschach Inkblot Test Developed by Herman Rorschach born 1884, died 1922 at age 37 published his book Psychodiagnostik in 1921
Use of different defenses as a function of age (Cramer, 1997)
Freud’s theory of humor Freud viewed humor as an acceptable way to express otherwise unacceptable impulses (sexual and aggressive) The concept of catharsis Hypothesis 1: We should find a joke funnier when its target is a person or a group we don’t like. Hypothesis 2: Hostile humor might reduce one’s tendency to aggress more than non-hostile humor. Hypothesis 3: The more tense and anxious we are, the funnier we will find a joke that allows us to release that tension and/or reduce that anxiety (Shurcliff, 1968).
Perceived funniness as a function of tension level (Shurcliff, 1968)
Hypnosis
Many techniques have been used as a hypnotic induction
The Psychoanalytic View The Social/Cognitive View Two views of hypnosis: The psychoanalytic view and the social/cognitive view The Psychoanalytic View The Social/Cognitive View Hypnosis involves the induction of either an altered state of consciousness or a division of consciousness. Hypnosis does not involve an induction of an altered state of consciousness, although hypnotic subjects might act as if it does. Part of the mind is either unaware of what is happening during the hypnotic episode or can be instructed to retain no awareness of it upon “awakening.” Hypnotic subjects are aware of what happens during the hypnotic episode, but might later act as if they do not retain the memory of these events. Age regression and pain analgesia can be effected during hypnosis. Age regression and pain analgesia cannot be effected during hypnosis.
Hypnotic responsiveness Q: What’s more important—the skill of the hypnotist or the susceptibility of the hypnotic subject? A: The susceptibility of the hypnotic subject Q: Is hypnotic susceptibility stable over time? A: Yes, with a test-retest correlation as large as .71 over 25 years Q: Which personality trait is the best predictor of hypnotic responsiveness? A: The trait of absorption (Tellegen & Atkinson, 1974)