Toolkit 2: focusing on language Chapter 14

Errors and Correction Student errors are evidence that progress is being made. Errors often show us that a student is experimenting with language, trying out ideas, taking risks, attempting to communicate, making progress. In dealing with errors, teachers have looked for correction techniques that, rather than simply giving SS the answer on a plate, help them to make their own corrections.

Sometimes language can be grammatically correct but completely inappropriate in the context in which it is used. Errors can also be made in intonation and rhythm; in fact, wrong intonation seems to cause more unintended offense to native speakers than almost any other kind of error.

Five teacher decisions have to be made when working with oral errors in class: What kind of error has been made (grammatical? pronunciation? etc.) Whether to deal with it (is it useful to correct it?) When to deal with it (now? end of activity? later?) Who will correct (teacher? student self-correction? other SS?) Which technique to use to indicate that an error has ocurred or to enable correction.

Some considerations when deciding if a correction should be made: Am I correcting something they don’t know? Will it help or hinder learning? What is my intention In correcting? How will the student take the correction?

When to Correct Immediately; after a few minutes; at the end of the activity; later in the lesson; at the end of the lesson; in the next lesson; later in the course; never.

Main objective of speaking activity When to correct   accuracy Focused immediate correction or later not at all fluency brief, unobtrusive, immediate correction (scaffolding)

One strategy used by many teachers during fluency activities is to listen in discreetly and collect a list of overheard errors. Later on, you can use that list to provide sentences to discuss, to set an exercise, to plan the next lesson, etc.

To encourage student self-correction or student-to-student correction you can follow two steps: Indicate that an error has been made. You may also indicate what kind of error it is, where in a sentence the error is, etc. Invite correction or help the student towards a correction.

Some ideas for indicating/correcting errors: Use facial expression. Use a gesture combined with facial expression. Use finger correction. Repeat sentence up to error. Echo sentence with changed intonation or stress. Ask a question. Draw a timeline on the board. Do the chain.

The Chain It’s an important student-student correction technique : if student A makes an error, elicit a correction from student B . If he also fails to get it right, then get another student to help him . This is where the chain comes in: C corrects B, and only when B has the idea does B then correct A’s error. A then gives the correct answer back to you.

Some ideas for indicating/correcting errors: Another correction technique that may be the quickest, most appropriate, and most useful way of helping would be: Say the corrected sentence yourself However, many teachers prefer to use it only when the other techniques don’t seem to work .

Testing Progress Tests Proficiency Tests

Testing (cont.) You can test anything that has been studied (the four language systems and the four language skills). Traditional “pen-and-paper” tests are usually made up of types of questions: Discreet item tasks which are likely to be marked objectively. Integrative tasks which are likely to be marked subjectively.

Three Characteristics of a Good Test A good test will seem fair and appropriate to the SS (and to anyone who needs to know the results, e.g. head teacher, employers, parents, etc) It will not be too troublesome to mark. It will provide clear results that serve the purpose for which it was set.

Criteria Descriptors Rather than Grades? point out areas where learners are not achieving as much as they could give encouragement that something is being done well The aim of progress tests Giving grades may not be the most effective way to assess, especially when skills are being tested.

Testing (cont.) An interesting alternative option is to base the tests around assessing if learners are ‘successful’ when compared or against some ‘can do’ criteria statements. These statements can reflect the syllabus of the course, so SS will have a clear idea of what level of achievement they are aiming for.

Testing (cont.) The candidate meets and surpasses the criteria. A criteria-based assessment scheme could measure each ‘can do’ on a scale of four: The candidate meets and surpasses the criteria. The candidate meets all main aspects of the criteria. The candidate meets the criteria in some respects, but with significant problems. The candidate is unable to meet the criteria in any respect.

Some Common Discreet-item Testing Techniques

Some Common Discreet-item Testing Techniques (cont.)

Some Common Discreet-item Testing Techniques (cont.)

Some Common Discreet-item Testing Techniques (cont.)

Some Common Discreet-item Testing Techniques (cont.)

Assessing Speaking Prepare criteria Explain criteria, set the task and keep track of individual ‘can dos’. Speaking tasks Self-assessment

Using the Learners’ First Language There are many helpful ways of using L1 in class: Uses of L1 in class. Community Language Learning (CLL). Variation. Mediation. English whispers. Diplomatic affairs. Diplomatic incident. Translation role-plays.

Cuisenaire Rods There is no ‘right’ methodology to use them. The rods are a visual aid in the same way that the board is. The difference lies in the fact that the rods are tangible; you can pick them up, and move them around; a picture or an arrangement made with them can easily be altered many times; you can make a scene and later change it.

Some Approaches and Some Examples Focusing on grammar by restricting the lexis. Making meaning tangible and being precise about meaning. Clarifying structure. Contextualizing.

Focusing on grammar by restricting the lexis.

Clarifying structure

Dictionaries Bilingual Monolingual They can be very useful at lower levels since they offer a swift way of getting an idea of the meaning of some of the flood of new words they meet. However, they have some limitations. Monolingual They are very useful for ‘fine-tuning information’ with which to make an appropriate selection for SS’ needs. If SS can use them, they have a skill that allows them to work more independently. Both kinds of dictionaries are useful depending on the purpose that learners have.

You can actively help by including systematic training in dictionary use. Two key general skills to work on are: Knowing alphabetical order; Knowing phonemic script.

Some important dictionary-using skills include: Using alphabetical order to quickly find a keyword entry. Checking whether your spelling of a word is correct. Using phonemic script to find which sounds are pronounced. Finding how many syllables a word has. Learning where a word is stressed. Interpreting definitions. Selecting the word that best expresses the meaning you want.

Short Dictionary Tasks Order Anagrams Guessing spelling Which word? Sounds to spelling Same sounds Where’s the stress Dictionary race

Other suggestions: Upgrading Alongside reading Explore Longer-term and less game-like work would actively encourage SS to see their dictionaries as a resource when writing, speaking, reading and listening: Upgrading Alongside reading Explore

Timelines They are a tool for clarifying the ‘time’ of various verb tenses. __________________________________________ A timeline attempts to make the flow of time visible, and thus enable learners to see more clearly exactly how one tense differs from another, or how a single sentence can refer to different “times”. NOW FUTURE PAST

Timelines When you are asked for an explanation of the meaning of a verb tense, try putting a timeline on the board as a visual aid. They are one way of becoming clearer about meaning. Unfortunately, the appealing clarity of diagrams like these may be an oversimplification. Timelines are one way of making English grammar more accessible.

A Useful Correction Technique: Fingers A simple but a basic technique for clarifying the structure of sentences and for instant error correction, especially useful when you are working mainly on spoken English without immediate use of written models.

The first time you use ‘finger sentences’ make sure your SS are clear that fingers represent words. Allow time to focus clearly on the individual words/fingers and clarify the problem they have. Once learners have seen the technique 3 or 4 times, it soon becomes a valuable tool.

Designed as a companion for “Learning Teaching” Methodology V by S Designed as a companion for “Learning Teaching” Methodology V by S. Valdivia Office of Academic Research - ICPNA