Learning Standard 7: SS.912.P.7

Reading – Ch 6 Prentice Hall Module 14, Pgs. 192-200

Learning Long lasting change in behavior due to experience. Has a much larger influence on behavior than instincts (for humans). Learning represents an evolutionary advance over instincts.

Crash Course http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qG2SwE_6uVM

Simple vs. Complex Learning Behavioral Learning is described in terms of stimuli and responses. Simple Learning-Classical conditioning: occurs with automatic, involuntary behavior Complex learning-Operant conditioning: applies to voluntary behavior

Classical Conditioning Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through his work on digestion in dogs A form of learning in which a previously neutral stimulus (stimuli w/o reflex provoking power) acquires the power to elicit the same innate reflex produced by another stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov Dogs would salivate before they were given food (triggered by sounds, lights etc.) Dogs must have LEARNED to salivate. Click above to see Pavlov

Pavlov’s Experiment Before conditioning takes place, the sound of the metronome does not cause salivation and is a neutral stimulus, or NS. During conditioning, the sound of the metronome occurs just before the presentation of the food, the UCS. The food causes salivation, the UCR. When conditioning has occurred after several pairings of the metronome with the food, the metronome will begin to elicit a salivation response from the dog without any food. This is learning, and the sound of the metronome is now a CS and the salivation to the ticking is the CR.

Classical Conditioning Reflex – an unlearned, involuntary response that is not under personal control or choice Stimulus – any object, event, or experience that causes a response Response – the reaction of an organism

Components of Conditioning There are 5 main components of Classical Conditioning Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) Conditioned Response (CR)

Neutral Stimulus Any stimulus that produces no conditioned response prior to learning. Pavlov discovered that a neutral stimulus, when paired with a natural reflex-producing stimulus, will begin to produce a learned response, even when it is presented by itself.

How does this work? Find a neutral stimulus (something that by itself elicits no response) Present the stimulus with the UCS a whole bunch of times.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary (reflex) response. Unconditioned means “unlearned” or “naturally occurring.” In Pavlov’s experiment, food was used as the UCS because it produced a salivation reflex

REMEMBER!!!! Classical conditioning cannot happen without UCS. The only behaviors that can be classically conditioned are those that are produced by unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned response (UCR) An involuntary response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus In Pavlov’s experiment, the UCR was the dog salivating when its tongue touched food. NOTE: UCS-UCR connection involves no learning or acquisition.

From Unconditioned to Conditioned Acquisition: The learning stage during which a conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus. During acquisition, a neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus. After several trials the neutral stimulus will gradually begin to elicit the same response as the UCS. =

Conditioned stimulus (CS) Stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment, the bell/tone began to produce the same response that the food once did.

Conditioned response (CR) Learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus Sometimes called a conditioned reflex A CR is a response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus that has become associated with the unconditioned stimulus. Although the response to the CS is essentially the same as the response originally produced by the UCS, we now call it a conditioned response.

Acquisition & Extinction Acquisition does not last forever. The moment the CS is no longer associated with the UCS, we have EXTINCTION.

EXTINCTION The diminishing (or lessening) of a learned response, when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus. Extinction does not mean complete elimination of a response. Extinction merely suppresses the conditioned response, and the CR can reappear during spontaneous recovery. Sometimes, after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented.

Spontaneous Recovery Sometimes, after extinction, the CR still randomly appears after the CS is presented. Spontaneous recovery is weaker than the original CR.

Classical Conditioning Harry Potter Video: https://youtu.be/B5eTpZHnUes

Generalization & Discrimination Stimulus generalization the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response. Stimulus discrimination The tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned emotional response (CER) Emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli Example: fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person CERs may lead to phobias – irrational fear responses.

Can you think of any emotional reactions you experience that might be classically conditioned emotional responses? Do you have any such reactions to similar situations or stimuli? After “Little Albert” had been conditioned to fear a white rat, he later demonstrated fear of a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, and this mask worn by Watson.

Vicarious conditioning Classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person

Conditioned taste aversion Development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste. Because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occurring after only one association. When it comes to food being paired with sickness, the conditioning is incredibly strong (even when food and sickness are hours apart).

Aversive Conditioning in Therapy Used to treat Alcohol Dependency A number of drugs can make you sick when you drink alcohol that produces high concentrations of a noxious chemical, acetaldehyde, to help alcoholics stop drinking. Disulfiram (Antabuse)-causes a very unpleasant reaction when an alcoholic patient ingests small amounts of alcohol. Example: vomiting, blurred vision ,headaches etc. VIDEO: CLOCKWORK ORANGE https://youtu.be/Jv1Bmne20l4

Biological preparedness Tendency of animals to learn certain associations Example: taste and nausea This association is done with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning

Operant Conditioning -Law of Effect Edward Thorndike: “puzzle box” experiment Principle behind learning voluntary behavior: An action followed by a pleasurable consequence will tend to be repeated. An action followed by an unpleasant consequence will tend not to be repeated.

Operant Conditioning Behaviorists wanted to study only observable, measurable behavior Gave “operant conditioning” its name Operant conditioning – A form of learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequence In classical conditioning, learning depends on what happens before the response Antecedent stimuli – stimuli that comes before another In operant conditioning, learning depends on what happens after the response – the consequence

B. F. Skinner B. F. Skinner – Skinner Box Nurture guy through and through. Used a Skinner Box (Operant Conditioning Chamber) to obtain empirical evidence to support his concepts.

Reinforcer A reinforcer is anything that INCREASES a behavior.

Primary reinforcer & Secondary reinforcer Primary reinforcer- Naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch. Secondary Reinforcer: Things we have learned to value. Example: praise, tokens, or gold stars Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything) Money is a special secondary reinforcer called a generalized reinforcer (because it can be traded for just about anything)

Positive & Negative Reinforcement The word “positive” means add or apply; “negative” is used to mean subtract or remove. Positive reinforcement – the reinforcement (strengthening) of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable stimulus. Example: A father gives candy to his daughter when she picks up her toys. If the frequency of picking up the toys increases, the candy is a positive reinforcer (to reinforce the behavior of cleaning up).

Positive & Negative Reinforcement Negative reinforcement – the reinforcement (strengthening) of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus. Example: A parent nags a child to clean his/her room. In order to stop the parent’s nagging, the child cleans the room (desired behavior) Here, the nagging serves to negatively reinforce the behavior of cleaning because the child wants to remove that aversive stimulus of nagging

Having a headache and taking an aspirin. Positive or Negative? Putting your seatbelt on. Having a headache and taking an aspirin. Faking sick to avoid Psych class. Getting a kiss for doing the dishes.

Types of Reinforcement Partial reinforcement – reinforcer after some but not all correct responses Continuous reinforcement – reinforcer for each and every correct response A response that receives partial reinforcement will be more resistant to extinction than a response that receives continuous reinforcement For example, imagine that you are trying to teach a dog to shake your hand. During the initial stages of learning, you would probably stick to a continuous reinforcement schedule in order to teach and establish the behavior. You might start by grabbing the animal's paw, performing the shaking motion, saying "Shake," and then offering a reward each and every time you perform this sequence of steps. Eventually, the dog will start to perform the action on his own, and you might opt to continue reinforcing every single correct response until the behavior is well established. Once the response if firmly attached, reinforcement is usually switched to a partial reinforcement schedule.

Schedules of Reinforcement Partial reinforcement can be accomplished according to different patterns or schedules. Interval schedule (TIME): when the timing of the response is more important. Ratio schedule (AMOUNT): when the number of responses is more important

Fixed vs. Variable Interval (TIME) Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement – the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same. e.g. After every 30 seconds of pressing the lever, the rat gets a pellet Variable interval schedule of reinforcement – the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event. e.g. Giving a food pellet to a ​rat after the first bar press following a one-minute interval, another pellet for the first response following a five-minute interval, and a third food pellet for the first response following a three-minute interval.

Fixed vs. Variable Ratio (Number) Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement – the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same. E.g. giving a food pellet to a rat after it presses a bar five times Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement – the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event. E.g. giving food pellets to a rat after one bar press, again after four bar presses, and a third pellet after two bar presses. NOTE: Gambling and lottery games are good examples of a reward based on a variable ratio schedule.

Punishment Punishment – any event or object which, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again. Positive Punishment : the punishment of a response by the addition or experience of an unpleasant stimulus. E.g. Students did not read and had to take a pop quiz Negative Punishment : the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus. E.g. Students were not paying attention in class and the teacher took their cell phone E.g. Time out if misbehaving at a birthday party REMEMBER: Positive” means adding something and “negative means removing something.

Four Ways to Modify Behavior

Click to images for videos Operant Conditioning Click to images for videos

Token Economy Token economy – a type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens. Tokens are secondary reinforcers that can be traded in for other kinds of reinforcers. E.g. Money Used in homes, prisons, mental institutions and schools.

How do we actually use Operant Conditioning? Shaping – reinforcement of simple steps, leading to a desired, more complex behavior To train a dog to get your slippers, you would have to reinforce him in small steps. Step 1: Find the slippers. Step 2: Then to put them in his mouth. Step 3: Then to bring them to you and so on…this is shaping behavior.

Successive Approximation Small steps, one after another, that lead to a particular goal behavior Example: To get Barry to become a better student, he needs to be rewarded after small steps to get to the desired. Every time Barry is rewarded for getting closer & closer to the behavior is successive approximation. Give massages when he studies for ten minutes, or for when he completes his homework. Small steps to get to the desired behavior.

Chaining Behavior It involves reinforcing individual responses occurring in a sequence to form a complex behavior. It is frequently used for training behavioral sequences (or "chains") that are beyond the current repertoire of the learner Click to see a cool example of chaining behaviors.

Crash Course https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=128Ts5r9NRE

Observational Learning Albert Bandura and his BoBo Doll Observational learning – learning new behavior by watching someone else, called a “model,” perform that behavior. The behavior might or might not be desirable Observational learning + Operant Conditioning = Social Learning Theory Click to see some observational learning.

Figure 16.2: Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

Observational Learning- BOBO DOLL Experimenter and a model interacted with toys in the room in front of a child; one in an aggressive manner, the other in a nonaggressive way Viewers of aggression played more aggressively Model’s behavior was imitated even in absence of reward Significantly, these children were more aggressive than those in a control condition who did not witness the adult’s violence.

THE FOUR ELEMENTS OF OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING Attention: learner must first pay attention to the model Memory: learner must also be able to retain memory of what was done Imitation: learner must be capable of reproducing the actions of the model Desire: learner must have the motivation to perform the action

Media and Violence Correlation evidence from over 50 studies shows that observing violence is associated with violent behavior. In addition, experiment evidence shows that viewers of media violence show a reduction in emotional arousal and distress when they subsequently observe violent acts-a condition known as psychic numbing.

Cognitive Learning Deals with mind’s influence over behavior Supplements the more traditional theories of learning Key theorists during the early days: Edward Tolman Wolfgang Köhler Martin Seligman

Latent Learning - Tolman Toleman’s study, rats were allowed to wander around a maze, without reinforcements, for several hours. It was formerly thought that reinforcements were essential for learning. However, the rats later were able to negotiate the maze for food more quickly than rats that had never seen the maze before. Latent learning: Learning that occurs but is not apparent until the learner has an incentive to demonstrate it.

Tolman- Latent Learning Three groups of rats placed in a maze First group: Reinforced with food each day for making its way out Second group: Did not receive any reinforcement upon exiting the maze until the tenth day Third group: Not given reinforcement for the entire duration of the experiment. First group learned steadily, and surprisingly the second group began to solve the maze almost immediately upon reinforcement – latent learning

Cognitive Map Cognitive maps are mental representations of physical locations. Humans and animals use them to find their way and to help recall important features of the environment. The term was introduced by psychologist Edward Tolman to explain how rats learned the locations of rewards in a maze.

Insight Learning The sudden perception of relationships among various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the problem to come quickly. Sometimes we have “flashes of insight” when dealing with a problem where we have been experiencing trial and error

Wolfgang Kohler and Sultan Kohler believed that chimps could solve complex problems by combining simpler behaviors they had previously learned separately. Kohler taught Sultan the chimp how to stack boxes to obtain bananas that were over his head and how to use a stick to obtain something that was out of his reach. He taught Sultan these skills in separate situations.

Sultan’s Situation When Sultan was put in a situation where the bananas were still out of his reach after stacking the boxes, Sultan became frustrated. He threw the stick and kicked the wall before sitting down. Suddenly, he jumped up and dragged the boxes and stick under the bananas. He then climbed up the boxes and whacked the fruit down with the stick. This suggested to Kohler that the animals were not mindlessly using conditioned behavior, but were learning by reorganizing their perceptions of problems. Insight could not be gained through trial-and-error learning alone

Video of Insight Learning Sultan the Chimp Video of Insight Learning

Learned helplessness The tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past. Martin Seligman first observed learned helplessness when he was doing experiments on dogs. He noticed that the dogs didn't try to escape the shocks if they had been conditioned to believe that they couldn't escape Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=87Vuqvp2V7w

Learned Helplessness & Depression Depression explained by the theory of learned helplessness. People tend to become somewhat apathetic, often staying in unpleasant environments rather than trying to escape or better their situation. Prevalence of a sense of powerlessness and hopelessness. Cognitive learning is an important part of a form of learning simplified as “monkey see, monkey do” Video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kvtKcsFMDrU