Types of Chromosome Mutations Refer to Figure 17-2, Griffiths et al., 2015.

Polyploidy in Animals Parthenogenesis - development of unfertilized egg into embryo polyploidy in leeches, flatworms, brine shrimp polyploidy in salamanders, lizards Polyploid frogs and toads undergo sexual reproduction. Polyploid fish (such as salmon, trout) are not unusual. Triploid oysters are of economic value. In general, polyploid mammals are not viable.

Aneuploidy (2n +/- m) Aneuploids differ from wild-type individuals by part of a chromosome set. Nondisjunction is a common mechanism for aneuploidy. Aneuploidy can be the cause of disorders such as Down Syndrome.

Examples of Aneuploidy Nullisomy (2n -2) Usually lethal in diploids Tolerated in some polyploids Monosomy (2n - 1) Gene imbalance results (missing chromosome) Expression of genes on lone chromosome (hemizygosity) Trisomy (2n + 1) Gene imbalance results (extra chromosome) Viability depends on chromosome and species Disomy (n + 1) Phenomenon in haploid organisms

Meiotic Nondisjunction Generates Aneuploid Products Refer to Figure 17-12, Griffiths et al., 2015.

Turner Syndrome XO Klinefelter Syndrome XXY

Meiotic Products of a Trisomic Refer to Figure 17-14, Griffiths et al., 2015.

Characteritstics of Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21) Refer to Figure 17-16, Griffiths et al., 2015.

The Maternal-Age Effect in Down Syndrome Refer to Figure 17-17, Griffiths et al., 2015.

Trisomy 13: Patau Syndrome Rarely do fetuses go to term. Rarely do babies survive. Symptoms include: * cleft palate * atrial septal defect * inguinal hernia Polydactyly is common.

Trisomy 13: Patau Syndrome Severity of symptoms is variable. 7-year old survivor (deaf and legally blind). Others are not as fortunate. CYCLOPIA

Trisomy 18: Edward’s Syndrome Rarely do fetuses go to term. Rarely do babies survive. Symptoms include: * cleft palate * small face * short sternum * low-set ears * overlapping fingers * clenched fist * clubfeet

Trisomy 18: Edward’s Syndrome These two girls are rare survivors.

Heterochromatin Features of Constitutive Heterochromatin Present at homologous sites on pairs of chromosomes Always genetically inert DNA sequences that are not organized into genes 4. Telomeric and centromeric regions Features of Facultative Heterochromatin Referred to as silent chromatin Potential to become heterochromatic (Barr body) 3. Genetic information that is not expressed once chromatin becomes condensed

Mammalian X Chromosome Inactivation Calico cats are usually females heterozygous for orange allele and black allele at an X-linked locus. Male calico cats are very rare. Why is this the case?

X Chromosome Inactivation Most genes on the inactivated X chromosome are silenced (turned off, not expressed). Genes on the inactivated X chromosome remain silenced in descendant cells. Heritable alteration of this type is an example of epigenetic inheritance. Chromosomal DNA sequence remains unchanged.

Mammalian X Chromosome Inactivation Inactivated X chromosome becomes highly condensed, darkly staining structure called Barr body. State of inactivation is transmitted down the cell lineage.