Principles of Image Production

Focusing cup

X-ray Tube Vacuum tube A device that relies on the flow of electric current through a vacuum Glass envelope Good insulator, vacuum tight, high melting point Tube housing Lined with 1.5mm of lead(pb) to prevent leakage radiation

Cathode Negative electrode Contains Focusing cup Filament

Cathode Focusing cup Focuses the electrons on a smaller spot of the anode Made of nickel, stainless steel or molybdenum House the filaments

Cathode Filament Spiral coil made of Tungsten Heats up and emits electrons When rotor/prep is pressed Dual focus tube houses 2 filaments Only 1 is charged during x-ray production dependent upon what focal spot size is chosen

Apply your knowledge What control setting does the radiographer set that would affect the number of electrons being released from the heating of the filament? mA /current Higher mA= increase in electrons= increase in the amount of x-rays that are produced

Anode Positive electrode Electrons strike anode target Target is made of Tungsten Stationary or Rotating Rotating (via induction motor) Avoids pitting Large copper rotor Steel bearings

Target Made of Tungsten Angled Line Focus Principle The angling of the anode results in the effective focal spot being smaller than the actual focal spot Smaller the angle/smaller the effective FSS Smaller the angle/smaller the effective FSS

Line Focus Principle Actual FSS Target area on Anode that is exposed to electrons Effective FSS Directly under the anode target Area projected onto patient and IR

Actual FSS- Target area on the anode where electrons strike Actual FSS- Target area on the anode where electrons strike.. Filament chosen determines what type of size stream you will have (Large/Small FSS) Effective FSS- area projected on the pt and IR. Smaller angle will give you a smaller effective FSS. Tubes are manufactured with specific degrees of angles To maintain the line focus principle you need a Large actual focal spot size which spreads the heat load (allows for higher exposures) and a small effective focal spot to improve image detail

Anode Heel Effect X-rays are more intense on the cathode side of the tube and less intense toward the anode. The lowering intensity on the anode side=lighter image on that end Place thinner or less dense portion of the pts anatomy under anode end (scoliosis series)

Thermionic Emission Heat induced flow of electrons Heated filament emits electrons by thermionic emission Occurs when you press the rotor/prep button

Apply your knowledge What control setting does the radiographer set that would affect the energy of the electrons as they reach the anode? kVp- penetration

X-ray Production High speed electrons from Cathode, collide with anode target and loose energy Xrays are produced Happens when exposure button is pressed

Bremsstrahlung Occurs when an incident electron interacts w/ the force field of an atomic nucleus. The force of the nucleus causes the electron to slow down. As the electron loses energy, it changes direction and the energy loss appears as an x-ray 85% of the x-ray beam consists of this interaction The electron does not hit anything/ only interacts with the force field

e Electromagnetic spectrum Heterogeneous part of the x-ray beam Heterogeneous/not uniform Small amount of energy= longer wavelength Large amount of energy=shorter wavelength Electromagnetic spectrum Heterogeneous part of the x-ray beam

Wavelengths A measure of the distance from the peak of one wave to the peak of the next wave Long wavelength, low frequency

Frequency The number of waves that pass a given point per second Short wavelength, high frequency. A lot more waves passing at a given point. Higher penetration/energy

Characteristic Interactions Projectile electron interacts w/ electron from inner shell(K) of target(tungsten) atom An outer shell electron drops into the open position & creates an energy difference The energy difference is emitted as an x-ray Only K-shell x-rays are diagnostically useful. Electron hits the inner shell The only interaction that produces x-ray photons is characteristic interaction Termed as secondary x-ray radiation/ photon (radiation that is emitted from atoms of an absorber)

X-ray Production Source of free electrons (filament/mA) set by mA Filament heats up based on the amount of current (mA) Thermionic Emission (step down transformer located in the filament circuit) Acceleration of Electrons (kVp) Kilovoltage sent to the filament from the step up transformer Focusing of electrons Deceleration of Electrons 4 things needed for x-ray production Thermionic Emission (put ball on the T) Acceleration of Electrons (hits ball down field)

Apply Your Knowledge What Happens When………… The rotor/prep button is pressed? When the exposure button is pressed? 1.Filament current heats up filament and boils off electrons through thermionic emission 2.Cathode repels electrons toward the anode and electrons strike anode. X-rays are produced

Maximize Tube Life

What are some of the ways a radiographer can help maximize the x-ray tubes life? In regards to mA, how can we maximize tube life?

Maximize tube life Use low mA Tube current/quantity of electrons High filament current applied for too long will shorten filament life. Tungsten from the filament is deposited on to the glass envelope.

Maximize tube life Make sure tube is warmed up before using Warm up with low mA exposures High mA exposures on cold target will crack the target 100mA 1sec 65-70kVp Large FS

Calculate Heat Unit kVp x mA x S x c 3 phase 6 pulse generator Follow tube rating charts to prevent excessive heat damage to tube kVp x mA x S x c 3 phase 6 pulse generator 1.35 x kVp x mA x sec 3 phase 12 pulse generator 1.41 x kVp x mA x sec S=seconds (time) C=generator

What is the heat unit for a 6 pulse unit set at 70kVp 100mA 1/2sec 4,725 HU

4,725 HU

Dark shades-photons that reach the image receptor Beam Characteristics Beam Quality- Refers to the penetrating(energy) power of the x-ray beam Affected by kVp Beam filtration Beam Quantity-Total number(intensity) of x-ray photons in a beam mAs, kVp, Distance and Filtration Dark shades-photons that reach the image receptor X-ray quantity is indirectly related to filtration/ As filtration is increased, quantity will decrease because low energy x-rays will be absorbed by filtration Penetration refers to the photons that are transmitted through the body and reach the image receptor(result in an image) Light/clear areas-no photons reached

Beam Quality Penetrating (energy/how fast) power of the beam/kVp is primary factor Directly proportional to kVp kVp= beam penetration High kVp=High quality or “Hard” beams Low kVp=Low quality or “Soft” beams Penetration refers to the photons that are transmitted through the body and reach the image receptor(result in an image) An increase in filtration results in an increase in x-ray quality but not penetrability

Beam Quality Filtration Removes the lower energy photons making the quality higher Directly related Half-value layer Beam quality is measured by the half-value layer Thickness of absorbing material (AL) necessary to reduce the energy of the beam to ½ its original intensity Increases beam quality, but not penetrability

Beam Quantity Total number of x-ray photons in beam Affected by mAs, kVp, distance and filtration mAs is the primary factor Directly proportional to mAs Double the mAs=Double output Square of kVp Double kVp=increase quantity by factor of four

Inverse Square Law Beam Quantity varies inversely as the square of the distance Inverse Square Law- The intensity of the beam is inversely proportional to the square of the distance The intensity quadruples if the distance is reduced to ½ of its original value

Apply your knowledge What will the intensity of a beam be at 40 inches if it is 5 R at 80 inches? Pg 57 (Johnston & Fauber) 20R

X-ray Beam Review Beam Quality kVp (direct) Filtration(Half Value Layer)(direct) Beam Quantity mAs (direct) kVp (direct but not proportional) Distance (indirect) Filtration (Half Value Layer) (indirect) Sum it up!

Beam Characteristics Primary vs. Remnant Primary radiation- useful radiation that consists of the x-ray photons directed through the x-ray tube window port “Incident Photons” Remnant radiation- “exit radiation” the portion of the attenuated(progressive absorption) x-ray beam that emerges from the patient and interacts with the image receptor Primary X-ray beam prior to interaction w/ the pt Remnant Image forming beam

Fundamental Properties X-ray is a form of electromagnetic energy Heterogeneous and polyenergetic Wide variety of wavelengths and energies X-rays travel in straight line at the speed of light Ionize Matter Removal of an electron from an atom

Fundamental Properties Ionize Matter Removal of an electron from an atom Ionization is the characteristic of x-rays that make them dangerous in general and harmful to the patient if misused Damage molecules and DNA, cause chemical changes in cells

Photon Interactions with Matter Purpose: How X-ray photons interact w/ matter(human tissue) Reason: To minimize harm to the patient and produce a quality radiographic image X-rays travel in straight line

Compton Interaction Scattering events that ionize the atom Incident photon interacts w/ an outer- shell electron, producing a scatter photon and recoil electron Problems Results in Image fog Adds to patient dose Major source of Occupational radiation dose Incident photon interacts w/ an outer- shell electron, producing a scatter photon and recoil electron

Incident photon interacts w/ an outer-shell electron, producing a scatter photon and recoil electron Ionize the atom

Photoelectric Interaction Total absorption of the incident photon A characteristic cascade producing secondary photon results An ejected photoelectron exits the atom w/ enough energy to undergo many more interactions The atom is ionized Primary source of patient radiation exposure Directly impacts contrast An increase in contrast= increase in pt dose

Total absorption of the incident photon The atom is ionized

Coherent (Classical) Interactions AKA: Coherent Scattering or Thomson Scattering No electron is removed, the atom absorbs the energy & then releases it in a new direction Contribute only to patient skin exposure Very low energy Unmodified

Key Words for Interactions Interactions that are happening inside the tube Incident electrons (Bremsstrahlung/Characteristic) Interacts w/ force field (Bremsstrahlung) Dislodges a K-shell electron(Characteristic) Photon interactions w/ matter (human tissue) Incident photons Scatter photon (Compton) Photon- now they have electromagnetic energy

Beam Attenuation Differential absorption

The process of image formation is a result of differential absorption of the xray beam as it interacts with anatomic tissue Anatomic parts do not absorb the primary beam to the same degree

Beam Attenuation Gradual loss of intensity Reduction in energy/number of photons as the beam passes through anatomic tissue Affected by Thickness of the anatomic part Atomic number Tissue density Energy of the beam (Quality)

Beam Attenuation Tissue Thickness tissue thickness Increase attenuation More x-rays are absorbed or scattered by the tissue so more radiation is needed to produce an image

Beam Attenuation Atomic Number High atomic number (bone) Increase attenuation= bright image Lower atomic number (fat) Decrease attenuation= light image

Beam Attenuation Tissue Density Compactness of the atomic particles Increase attenuation Bone Muscle Muscle Fat Fat Air

Beam Attenuation Quality of the beam Higher penetrating x-rays Wavelength shorter Frequency higher Attenuation decrease

Beam Attenuation Lower penetrating x-rays Wavelength longer Frequency higher

Processes that occur during beam attenuation Absorption Enough energy to remove an inner-shell electron (ionization) The ejected electron (photoelectron) has very low energy and will quickly lose the energy by interacting with nearby tissue Photoelectric effect

Processes that occur during beam attenuation Scattering Photons that are not absorbed but lose energy When the incoming photon ejects an outer-shell electron for a tissue atom Ejected electron is a Compton electron Remaining lower-energy xray photon changes direction and may leave the part to interact with the image receptor Provide no useful information/minimize Compton Interaction

Compton or Photoelectric Higher kVp Compton Lower kVp Photoelectric

Transmission An incoming xray photon passes through the anatomic part without any interaction with the atomic structures and expose the image receptor Dark shades on the film Lungs Absorption- white areas/bright Photons do not reach the image receptor Transmission – dark areas/greys

Transmission Less than 5% of the primary x-ray beam interacting with the anatomic part actually reches the image receptor A % less than that is used to create the image The remnant/exit radiation leaving the patient interacts with an image receptor to create the latent(invisible ) image Absorption- white areas/bright Photons do not reach the image receptor Transmission – dark areas/greys

Factor Beam attenuation Absorption Transmission Tissue Thickness Increase thickness Decrease thickness Tissue Atomic Number Increase number Decrease number Tissue Density Increase density Decrease density Xray Beam Quality Increase Quality Decreasing Quality