Memory super memorist: 20 The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Memory in the Brain The Physical Basis of Memory No one area houses memories Ongoing Electrical Activity Synaptic Changes Long-term Potentiation (LTP) – increase in a synapse’s firing potential after stimulation (engram) program 17

Procedural vs. Declarative Memories Procedural Memory: (implicit memory) houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses and emotion responses. Procedural memories stored in the cerebellum.

Procedural vs. Declarative Memories Declarative Memory: (explicit memory) handles factual information; recollections of words, definitions, names, dates, faces, etc. Declarative memories stored in the hippocampus.

Two Types of Declarative Memories There are two distinct types of declarative (explicit) memories Episodic memories – made up of chronological, recollections of personal experiences A record of things one has done, seen and heard. Semantic memories – knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned. Ex. Christmas is December 25th, dogs have four legs and Phoenix is in Arizona

Three Stage Theory of Memory

Short-Term (Working Memory) Sensory Iconic Echoic Short-Term (Working Memory) Long-Term Declarative Episodic Semantic Procedural

Sensory Memory Sensory Memory: it’s the initial recording information from the senses Two types of sensory memory: Iconic: momentary sensory memory of VISUAL stimuli Lasts no more than a second Echoic: momentary sensory memory of ACOUSTIC stimuli Can last 3-4 seconds

Short Term Memory The stuff we encode from the sensory goes to STM. Events are encoded visually (images), acoustically (sounds) or semantically (meanings). George Miller discovered STM holds about 7 (plus or minus 2) items for about 20 seconds. We recall digits better than letters.

The Memory Process crash course Three step process…. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

Encoding: The Role of Attention Attention: focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events Two types of attention involved in memory: Focused: Giving “full” attention to a stimuli Information likely to progress to long-term memory Divided: splitting attention between two or more stimuli Information less likely to progress to long-term memory Multi-tasking is not performing two tasks at once, but rather switching attention back and forth

Encoding: Two Types of Processing Automatic processing: unconscious encoding of information such as space, time and frequency of events (familiar objects, concepts or behaviors) Done by “accident” Ex: Who was the first person you spoke to today? Effortful processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort (new objects, concepts or behaviors) Done purposefully Ex: Last unit you hopefully used effortful processing to remember which part of the brain moves memories from short term to long term.

Effortful Processing: A Closer Look Hermann Ebbinghaus: German philosopher who pioneered studies in memory (“nonsense syllables”) Rehearsal: conscious repetition; practice Two types of rehearsal: 1. maintenance rehearsal: repeating an item to maintain in STM and subsequently forget 2. elaborative rehearsal: relating new items to memories already in LTM or applying meaning to items to enhance future recall

Transferring from STM to LTM Chunking - organizing items into familiar, manageable units Mnemonic Devices Rehearsal – repetition, repetition, repetition 1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 "Mary Very Easily Makes Jam Saturday Unless No Plums."

Encoding: Levels of Processing Shallow Processing: Structural encoding: (visual); emphasizes the physical structure of a stimulus i.e. what the words physically look like Phonemic encoding: (acoustic) emphasizes what a word sounds like Deep Processing: Semantic encoding: emphasizes the meaning of verbal input or creating associations between new memories and existing memories (elaborative rehearsal) Self-reference encoding: relating new information to ourselves or our own experiences

Encoding Processes Visual Encoding: the encoding of images example Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning the most effective encoding with multiple process types is even more effective

Memory Strategies start @ 7:04 Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve memory by organizing information Method of Loci: ideas are associated with a place or part of a building example Peg-Word system: peg words are associated with ideas (e.g. “one is a bun”) Word Associations: verbal associations are created for items to be learned

Chunking Chunking & other methods # Organizing items into familiar, manageable units. Often it will occur automatically. 1-4-9-2-1-7-7-6-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1 Chunk- from Goonies Do these numbers mean anything to you? 1492, 1776, 1812, 1941 how about now?

Chunking Write down as many of the states of the US as you can remember!

Take out a piece of paper and name all the Presidents

Encoding Information Serial Positioning Effects – the tendency for recall to be affected by the order of encoding Primacy Effect –more likely to recall items at the beginning of a list Recency Effect – likely to recall items at the end of a list What else influenced your ability to recall?

Serial Positioning Effect Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list. Presidents Recalled If we graph an average person remembers presidential list- it would probably look something like this.

Encoding – The Spacing Effect distributed study or practice yields better long term retention cramming is minimally effective What, then, would be good strategies for preparing for AP Psych tests? For the AP Exam in the spring?

Storage: Long-Term Memory Long-term memory: relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory Severe stress is thought to increase memory of a particularly stressful event. Role of hormones and the amygdala Flash-bulb memories: unusually vivid and detailed recollections of emotionally significant events

The Context Matters!!! crash course Mood Congruent Memory the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with your current mood State Dependent Memory memory that is recalled under the consciousness conditions it was formed

Prospective v. Retrospective Memory Prospective Memory: remembering to perform actions in the future Retrospective Memory: remembering events from the past or previously learned information

Retrieval- Getting Memories Out of Storage

Was it easy or hard? It depends on several things…. If you like Disney movies? When was the last time you have seen the movie? Are people around you being loud so you cannot concentrate?

Take out a piece of paper….. Name the seven dwarves….. Now name them…..

Recall vs. Recognition Recall Recognition you must retrieve the information from your memory fill-in-the blank or essay tests you must identify the target from possible targets multiple-choice tests

Retrieving Stored Memories Retrieval Cues – anchor points used to access specific needed information Tip-of-the-Tongue phenomenon: temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach TOT can be “cured” with retrieval cues

Retrieving Stored Memories Priming: retrieval cue that activates associations in memory.

Memory Construction Memories are not always what they seem. Misinformation Effect – incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event Elizabeth Loftus- leading researcher in misinformation effect, false memories and the reliability of eyewitness testimony Can involve confabulation (filling in memory gaps by substituting memories from unrelated events)

Misinformation Effect Depiction of Accident Leading Question: About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?

Misinformation Effect Leading Question: About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

Forgetting – Encoding Failure

Which is the Right Penny Which is the Right Penny? AUTOMATIC ENCODING (From Nickerson & Adams, 1979)‏

Forgetting – Retrieval Failure Retroactive Interference: recent information blocks out old information. Proactive Interference: previous information blocks out new information. Getting a new bus number and forgetting old bus number. Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriend’s name.

Repression – Freud’s concept of the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Forgetting - Storage Decay Even after encoding something well, we sometimes forget it. Herman Ebbinghaus’ experiments with non-sense syllables Showed the memory fades quickly, but then the speed at which it fades levels out.

Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Types of Amnesia Clive Wearing Causes: Brain Damage, Shock, Repression, Stress and Illness Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or trauma Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma 50 1st dates trailer Infantile Amnesia: Before 3 years old Source amnesia-where did I hear or read that??