Overview: The Fundamental Units of Life

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Presentation transcript:

Overview: The Fundamental Units of Life All organisms are made of cells Cell structure is correlated to cellular function For the Discovery Video Cells, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Microscopy Scientists use microscopes to visualize cells too small to see with the naked eye In a light microscope (LM), visible light passes through a specimen and then through glass lenses, which magnify the image Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

TEMs are used mainly to study the internal structure of cells Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs) are used to study subcellular structures Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a beam of electrons onto the surface of a specimen, providing images that look 3-D Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) focus a beam of electrons through a specimen TEMs are used mainly to study the internal structure of cells Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

(b) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Longitudinal section of Fig. 6-4 TECHNIQUE RESULTS 1 µm (a) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Cilia (b) Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Longitudinal section of cilium Cross section of cilium 1 µm Figure 6.4 Electron microscopy

Cell fractionation takes cells apart and separates the major organelles from one another Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that compartmentalize their functions The basic structural and functional unit of every organism is one of two types of cells: prokaryotic or eukaryotic Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Basic features of all cells: Plasma membrane Semifluid substance called cytosol Chromosomes (carry genes) Ribosomes (make proteins) Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having No nucleus DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid No membrane-bound organelles Cytoplasm bound by the plasma membrane Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

A typical rod-shaped bacterium (b) Fig. 6-6 Fimbriae Nucleoid Ribosomes Plasma membrane Bacterial chromosome Cell wall Capsule 0.5 µm Flagella (a) A typical rod-shaped bacterium (b) A thin section through the bacterium Bacillus coagulans (TEM) Figure 6.6 A prokaryotic cell

Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear envelope Membrane-bound organelles Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma membrane and nucleus Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The plasma membrane is a selective barrier that allows sufficient passage of oxygen, nutrients, and waste to service the volume of every cell Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Carbohydrate side chain Fig. 6-7 (a) TEM of a plasma membrane Outside of cell Inside of cell 0.1 µm Carbohydrate side chain Hydrophilic region Figure 6.7 The plasma membrane Hydrophobic region Hydrophilic region Phospholipid Proteins (b) Structure of the plasma membrane

The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets limits on the size of cells The surface area to volume ratio of a cell is critical Small cells have a greater surface area relative to volume Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell Plant and animal cells have most of the same organelles Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) Nucleolus NUCLEUS Rough ER Smooth ER Fig. 6-9a Nuclear envelope ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER) Nucleolus NUCLEUS Rough ER Smooth ER Flagellum Chromatin Centrosome Plasma membrane CYTOSKELETON: Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules Ribosomes Figure 6.9 Animal and plant cells—animal cell Microvilli Golgi apparatus Peroxisome Mitochondrion Lysosome

Rough endoplasmic reticulum Fig. 6-9b Nuclear envelope Rough endoplasmic reticulum NUCLEUS Nucleolus Chromatin Smooth endoplasmic reticulum Ribosomes Central vacuole Golgi apparatus Microfilaments Intermediate filaments CYTO- SKELETON Microtubules Figure 6.9 Animal and plant cells—plant cell Mitochondrion Peroxisome Chloroplast Plasma membrane Cell wall Plasmodesmata Wall of adjacent cell

The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Nucleus: Information Central The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most conspicuous organelle The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm The nuclear membrane is a double membrane; each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Close-up of nuclear envelope Fig. 6-10 Nucleus 1 µm Nucleolus Chromatin Nuclear envelope: Inner membrane Outer membrane Nuclear pore Pore complex Rough ER Surface of nuclear envelope Ribosome 1 µm Figure 6.10 The nucleus and its envelope 0.25 µm Close-up of nuclear envelope Pore complexes (TEM) Nuclear lamina (TEM)

The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the nuclear lamina, which is composed of protein Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

In the nucleus, DNA and proteins that assist in the folding of DNA form genetic material called chromatin Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Ribosomes: Protein Factories Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations: In the cytosol (free ribosomes) On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes) For the Cell Biology Video Staining of Endoplasmic Reticulum, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Fig. 6-11 Cytosol Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) Free ribosomes Bound ribosomes Large subunit Figure 6.11 Ribosomes Small subunit 0.5 µm TEM showing ER and ribosomes Diagram of a ribosome

Endomembrane System Endo = inside

Components of the endomembrane system: Concept 6.4: The endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell Components of the endomembrane system: Nuclear envelope Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes Vacuoles Plasma membrane These components are either continuous or connected via transfer by vesicles Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope There are two distinct regions of ER: Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes Rough ER, with ribosomes studding its surface For the Cell Biology Video ER and Mitochondria in Leaf Cells, go to Animation and Video Files.

Smooth ER Nuclear envelope Rough ER ER lumen Cisternae Transitional ER Fig. 6-12 Smooth ER Nuclear envelope Rough ER ER lumen Cisternae Transitional ER Ribosomes Transport vesicle 200 nm Smooth ER Rough ER Figure 6.12 Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Functions of Rough ER The rough ER Has bound ribosomes Distributes transport vesicles, proteins surrounded by membranes Is a membrane factory for the cell

Functions of Smooth ER The smooth ER Synthesizes lipids Metabolizes carbohydrates Stores calcium

The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae Functions of the Golgi apparatus: Modifies products of the ER Manufactures certain macromolecules Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles For the Cell Biology Video ER to Golgi Traffic, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Golgi Complex in 3D, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Secretion From the Golgi, go to Animation and Video Files.

(“receiving” side of Golgi apparatus) 0.1 µm Fig. 6-13 cis face (“receiving” side of Golgi apparatus) 0.1 µm Cisternae Figure 6.13 The Golgi apparatus trans face (“shipping” side of Golgi apparatus) TEM of Golgi apparatus

Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and macromolecules, a process called autophagy

Fig. 6-14 Nucleus 1 µm Vesicle containing two damaged organelles 1 µm Mitochondrion fragment Peroxisome fragment Lysosome Digestive enzymes Lysosome Lysosome Plasma membrane Peroxisome Figure 6.14a Lysosomes Digestion Food vacuole Mitochondrion Digestion Vesicle (a) Phagocytosis (b) Autophagy

Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER Plasma membrane Fig. 6-16-1 Figure 6.16 Review: relationships among organelles of the endomembrane system Plasma membrane

Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER cis Golgi Plasma membrane trans Golgi Fig. 6-16-2 Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER cis Golgi Figure 6.16 Review: relationships among organelles of the endomembrane system Plasma membrane trans Golgi

Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER cis Golgi Plasma membrane trans Golgi Fig. 6-16-3 Nucleus Rough ER Smooth ER cis Golgi Figure 6.16 Review: relationships among organelles of the endomembrane system Plasma membrane trans Golgi

Mitochondria and Chloroplast and Peroxisomes (energy/metabolism)

Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles Concept 6.5: Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from one form to another Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that generates ATP Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles For the Cell Biology Video ER and Mitochondria in Leaf Cells, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Mitochondria in 3D, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Chloroplast Movement, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Mitochondria and chloroplasts Are not part of the endomembrane system Have a double membrane Have proteins made by free ribosomes Contain their own DNA (endosymbiotic theory- mitochondria as precursor to bacteria?) Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA, which replicates and propagates itself entirely independently of the main DNA in the chromosomes of the nucleus. All the mitochondria in you are descended from the small population of mitochondria that travelled from your mother in her egg.

Mitochondria: Chemical Energy Conversion They have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane folded into cristae The inner membrane creates two compartments: intermembrane space and mitochondrial matrix Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that synthesize ATP Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

in the mitochondrial matrix Fig. 6-17 Intermembrane space Outer membrane Free ribosomes in the mitochondrial matrix Inner membrane Cristae Figure 6.17 The mitochondrion, site of cellular respiration Matrix 0.1 µm

Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy The chloroplast is a member of a family of organelles called plastids Chloroplasts contain the green pigment chlorophyll, as well as enzymes and other molecules that function in photosynthesis Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of plants and in algae Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Inner and outer membranes Fig. 6-18 Ribosomes Stroma Inner and outer membranes Granum 1 µm Thylakoid Figure 6.18 The chloroplast, site of photosynthesis

Peroxisomes: Oxidation Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic compartments bounded by a single membrane Peroxisomes help break down fatty acids and produce hydrogen peroxide in the process which is then converted into water Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain its shape Concept 6.6: The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm It organizes the cell’s structures and activities, anchoring many organelles The cytoskeleton helps to support the cell and maintain its shape For the Cell Biology Video The Cytoskeleton in a Neuron Growth Cone, go to Animation and Video Files For the Cell Biology Video Cytoskeletal Protein Dynamics, go to Animation and Video Files.

Components of the Cytoskeleton Three main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton: Microtubules are the thickest of the three components of the cytoskeleton Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are the thinnest components Intermediate filaments are fibers with diameters in a middle range For the Cell Biology Video Actin Network in Crawling Cells, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Actin Visualization in Dendrites, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Centrosomes and Centrioles In many cells, microtubules grow out from a centrosome near the nucleus The centrosome is a “microtubule-organizing center” In animal cells, the centrosome has a pair of centrioles, each with nine triplets of microtubules arranged in a ring Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Extracellular Components

These extracellular structures include: Concept 6.7: Extracellular components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the plasma membrane These extracellular structures include: Cell walls of plants The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells Intercellular junctions For the Cell Biology Video Ciliary Motion, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Cell Walls of Plants The cell wall is an extracellular structure that distinguishes plant cells from animal cells The cell wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape, and prevents excessive uptake of water Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and protein Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM) ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins in the plasma membrane called integrins For the Cell Biology Video Cartoon Model of a Collagen Triple Helix, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Staining of the Extracellular Matrix, go to Animation and Video Files. For the Cell Biology Video Fibronectin Fibrils, go to Animation and Video Files. Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Proteoglycan complex Collagen EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Fibronectin Fig. 6-30a Collagen Proteoglycan complex EXTRACELLULAR FLUID Fibronectin Integrins Plasma membrane Figure 6.30 Extracellular matrix (ECM) of an animal cell, part 1 Micro-filaments CYTOPLASM

Functions of the ECM: Support Adhesion Movement Regulation Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Intercellular Junctions Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or organ systems often adhere, interact, and communicate through direct physical contact Intercellular junctions facilitate this contact There are several types of intercellular junctions Plasmodesmata Tight junctions Desmosomes Gap junctions Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings