The Beginning of Life and Childhood

Learning Outcomes 11.1 Define genetics and heredity. 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate, and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. 11.3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. LO 11.1 Define genetics and heredity. LO 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues.

11-3 Learning Outcomes 11.4 Discuss three possible remedies for couples experiencing infertility problems. 11.5 List and discuss those laws affecting health care that pertain especially to childrens’ rights. LO 11.4 Discuss three possible remedies for couples experiencing infertility problems. 3

Genetics and Heredity p. 327 The science that accounts for natural differences and resemblances among organisms related by descent Heredity The science of or the process by which organisms pass genetic traits on to their offspring; part of the wider scope of the term genetics LO 11.1 Define genetics and heredity.

DNA (Dioxyribonucleic Acid)p. 328 11-5 DNA (Dioxyribonucleic Acid)p. 328 LO 11.1 Define genetics and heredity. 5

DNA (Dioxyribonucleic Acid) p. 328 11-6 DNA (Dioxyribonucleic Acid) p. 328 DNA is the combination of proteins, called nucleotides, that is arranged to make up an organism’s chromosomes. Forty-six chromosomes (23 pairs) are found inside the nucleus of every human cell, except egg and sperm cells, which have 23 each. We inherit half of our chromosome complement from our mother and half from our father. These 46 chromosomes carry the genes responsible for all our human characteristics. LO 11.1 Define genetics and heredity. 6

11-7 Genes p. 328 A tiny segment of DNA found on a chromosome within a cell’s nucleus Each gene holds the formula for making a specific molecule. The genes that make up the human “genome” are responsible for all the cells, organs, tissues and traits that make up each individual. LO 11.1 Define genetics and heredity. 7

The Human Genome Project p. 328 11-8 The Human Genome Project p. 328 Started in 1990 to analyze the entire human genome All the DNA in an organism Goals were to locate and map each gene on all 46 chromosomes Created a data bank for professionals Examined ethical, legal and social issues involved with genetics research LO 11.1 Define genetics and heredity. 8

Con page 328 Scientists set out to map all of the genes within the 23 pairs of human chromosomes.

Con page 328 The Human Genome Project was scheduled for completion in 2003 but was finished in mid 2000 surprisingly instead of the suspete 100,000 genes, humans have approximately 20,000 to 25,000 genes.

DNA tests are conducted on samples of solid tissues such as hair roots, skin, or bone, and from body fluids such as blood, semen, or saliva.

Uses of Genetic Testing p. 329 11-12 Uses of Genetic Testing p. 329 Predictive testing—to see if genes are present that could lead to hereditary diseases or other harmful genetic condition Carrier testing—to determine if individuals carry harmful genes that could be passed on to offspring. Prenatal testing--done through amnio-centesis to see if harmful genes are present in a fetus. LO 11.1 Define genetics and heredity. 12

Genetic Testing con. Page 329 Preimplantation testing—tests for harmful genes in embryos after artificial insemination but before implantation. Forensics testing—used in law enforcement to eliminate or designate suspects in a crime.

Tracing lineage—to determine parentage or relationships within families Newborn screening tests—to check for treatable, harmful genetic conditions or diseases Diagnostic testing— confirm or rule out certain genetic diseases

11-15 Genetic Diseases p. 330 LO 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. 15

When more than one gene is involved, environmental factors, such as the changes caused by aging, smoking, exposure to environmental toxins, or other factors may trigger the onset of a genetic disease, as in cases of Alzheimer’s, diabetes, obesity and some forms of cancer.

Some genetic diseases can arise from abnormalities in the structure or number of whole chromosomes. Down syndrome for example results from an extra copy of chromosome 21, resulting in three chromosome 21s instead of two

Question Tell whether the following statement is true or false. 11-18 Question Tell whether the following statement is true or false. Down syndrome is one of the inherited conditions that is often detected through amniocentesis. True False LO 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. 18

11-19 Answer True Down syndrome is one of the inherited conditions that is often detected through amniocentesis. During amniocentesis, the physician withdraws a sample of amniotic fluid from the uterus of a pregnant woman and tests it for genetic or other conditions that may lead to abnormal development of the fetus. LO 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. 19

Checking Chromosomes for Disease 11-20 Checking Chromosomes for Disease LO 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. 20

Question Tell whether the following statement is true or false. 11-21 Question Tell whether the following statement is true or false. A child is diagnosed with sickle cell anemia. In this genetic disorder mutations occur in two genes. True False LO 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. 21

11-22 Answer False A child is diagnosed with sickle cell anemia. In this genetic disorder mutations occur in one gene. Mutations can involve one gene, as in sickle cell anemia, hemophilia, cystic fibrosis, Aicardi syndrome, and Huntington’s disease, or they can involve more than one gene as in Alzheimer’s Disease. LO 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. 22

Issues Related to Genetic Testing 11-23 Issues Related to Genetic Testing Should a fetus with a genetic disease be aborted? Should a person with a genetic disease opt not to marry? Should employers and insurance companies have access to genetic test results? Look at page 331 and 332 LO 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. 23

Genetic Discrimination p.331 11-24 Genetic Discrimination p.331 Differential treatment based on actual or presumed genetic differences Lisa N Geller’s study of genetic discrimination prompted laws to prevent genetic discrimination. The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) prevents health insurers from denying coverage based on genetic information. LO 11.2 List several situations in which genetic testing might be appropriate and explain how it might lead to genetic discrimination. 24

On page 332 look at the “pressured patient” paragraph and at the GINA act of 2008

Page 333 ----Because the chemical composition of DNA is nearly identical throughout the plant and animal kingdoms, genes can often be interchanged amoung plants and animals to transfer desirable characteristics to different species.

Crop genetic engineering includes: 1) DNA isolation 2) gene cloning 3) gene design 4) transformation, and 5) plant breeding

Genetic engineering is the directed addition of foreign DNA (genes) into an organism. Five basic steps in crop genetic engineering: DNA extraction - DNA is extracted from an organism known to have the desired trait. Gene cloning - The gene of interest is located and copied. Gene modification - The gene is modified to express in a desired way by altering and replacing gene regions. Transformation - The gene(s) are delivered into tissue culture cells, using one of several methods, where hopefully they will land in the nucleus and insert into a chromosome. Backcross breeding - Transgenic lines are crossed with elite lines to make high yielding transgenic lines.

Genetically engineering crops is done by manually adding totally new gene(s) to an organism. Therefore there is no need for sexual mating to pass on genetic material. As a result, a gene from any organisms can be introduced into another organism regardless of which species they belong to. This allows for many more possibilities of genetically engineered crops especially for crops that contain beneficial traits that their species never had before. Genetic engineering is very precise allowing scientists to move a single gene or just a few genes

Example Researchers have long respected the spider’s ability to generate surpassingly strong strands of silk-like material as they weave their elaborate death traps. The hope was that this material could be produced on a large enough scale to be used in everything from parachute cords to artificial ligaments. In 2000, a company called Nexia inserted the spider’s web-generating gene into a goat’s DNA. The goal was to get the goat to produce “silk milk,” milk that contained a special silk protein that the company has dubbed “Biosteel.” The world is still awaiting commercial-level production, however.

Genetic Engineering page 333 11-31 Genetic Engineering page 333 Manipulating DNA within the cells of plants, animals, and other organisms to ensure that certain advantageous traits will appear and be passed on, or that certain harmful traits are eliminated Genes can often be interchanged among plants and animals to transfer desirable characteristics to different species. LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. 31

11-32 Cloning p. 333 and 334 An organism is grown from a single cell of the parent so it is genetically identical to the parent. The genes and chromosomes found in each cell’s nucleus are the same in clone and parent. LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. 32

Question Tell whether the following statement is true or false. 11-33 Question Tell whether the following statement is true or false. Identical twins are considered to be clones. True False LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. 33

11-34 Answer True Identical twins are considered to be clones. Cloning is the process by which organisms are created asexually, usually from a single cell of the parent organism. LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. 34

Xenotransplantation top of page 335 11-35 Xenotransplantation top of page 335 Some objectives for cloning animals Transplanting animal organs and tissues into a human Problems Animal cells produce a sugar that human cells do not, causing a severe immune rejection reaction in humans when animal tissues are transplanted. Human cells can be infected with some viruses that exist in animals. LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. 35

Objections to Animal Cloning p. 335 11-36 Objections to Animal Cloning p. 335 Cloning does not always yield viable offspring. 30% of live clones are affected with “large offspring syndrome” and other debilitating conditions. A large failure rate in human clones is unacceptable. LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. 36

Objections to Animal Cloning (cont.) 11-37 Objections to Animal Cloning (cont.) Many clones die prematurely. Scientists do not know how cloning affects mental development. Objections are also based on grounds that such experiments could lead to the cloning of human beings LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. Page 20 37

Human Stem Cell Research p. 335 11-38 Human Stem Cell Research p. 335 Stem cells Embryonic Cells have the potential to become any type of body cell or tissues (pluripotent) Multipotent stem cells(adult stem cells found in bone marrow and fat) Can become a limited number of types of body cells and tissues LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. 38

11-39 Gene Therapy p. 337 Special diets can eliminate compounds that are toxic (causing the gene to express itself) to patients. This applies to such diseases as phenylketonuria and homocystinuria Vitamins or other agents can improve a biochemical pathway and thus reduce toxic levels of a compound.(ex: folic acid) LO 11. 3 Define genetic engineering, and explain why cloning and stem cell research are controversial issues. 39

11-40 Infertility page 338 The failure to conceive for a period of 12 months or longer due to a deviation from or interruption of the normal structure or function of any reproductive part, organ, or system. LO 11.4 Discuss three possible remedies for couples experiencing infertility problems. 40

Options for Infertile Couplesp. 338-339 11-41 Options for Infertile Couplesp. 338-339 In vitro fertilization Fertilization takes place outside woman’s body in test tube Artificial insemination Mechanical injection of semen into woman’s vagina Surrogacy A woman bears a child for another woman LO 11.4 Discuss three possible remedies for couples experiencing infertility problems. 41

Ultimately, like so many of life’s most meaningful choices, it will be a leap of faith, no matter what we decide. Until then, every month when I get the bill from the lab, I take a moment to stop and think about our four embryos, what they have become already, what they may yet become , or perhaps, what they might not become. Back in early 2008, Josh and I had just finished up our first round of IVF, which ultimately produced four “stunning” embryos, according to our reproductive endocrinologist. One was transferred back into my artificially-enhanced uterus, and three were put into the freezer. Nine months later, our healthy, beautiful daughter was born, and 11 months after that, another embryo was thawed, transferred, and eventually grew into another gorgeous baby girl. http://www.kveller.com/blog/parenting/two-daughters-two-frozen-embryos/

Types of Adoptions Agency adoption Independent adoption 11-43 Types of Adoptions Agency adoption Independent adoption Identified adoption International adoption Relative adoption LO 11.4 Discuss three possible remedies for couples experiencing infertility problems. 43

Rights of Children page 341 11-44 Rights of Children page 341 Parens patriae (father of the people) A legal doctrine that gives the state the authority to act in a child’s best interest Best interest of the children concept Alternative that best safeguards the child’s growth, development and health Rights of the newborn Same as any other citizen of any age LO 11.5 List and discuss those laws affecting health care that pertain especially to children’s rights. 44

Abandoned Infants page 342-343 11-45 Abandoned Infants page 342-343 Some states allow handing baby to doctor or police officer Some states allow reduction or elimination of prosecution Some states allow anonymity of the parent Some states place a limit on age of abandoned baby LO 11.5 List and discuss those laws affecting health care that pertain especially to children’s rights. 45

Download an audio clip of Child Safety Branch Manager Lisa Durbin discussing the Safe Infants Law at http://chfs.ky.gov/NR/rdonlyres/540FD913-A09F-4718-9A72-5345281FAE9E/0/SafeInfantsANRFeb08.mp3. The Safe Infants Act became effective in April 2002 and allows parents or someone acting on their behalf to anonymously place infants they cannot care for at selected “safe places.” The law has resulted in 20 babies being placed in the care of the Kentucky Cabinet for Health and Family Services (CHFS).

Minors pages 343-344-345 Mature minors Emancipated minors 11-47 Minors pages 343-344-345 Mature minors Individuals in their mid- to late teens considered mature enough to give informed consent Emancipated minors Individuals in their mid- to late teens who legally live outside parents’ or guardians’ control LO 11.5 List and discuss those laws affecting health care that pertain especially to children’s rights. 47