ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 14th Edition A Study of Interrelationships

Outline 8.1 History of Energy Consumption 8.2 How Energy Is Used 8.3 Electrical Energy 8.4 The Economics and Politics of Energy Use 8.5 Energy Consumption Trends

Biological Energy Sources Initial energy transfer occurs through photosynthesis. Very early in history humans began to exploit additional energy sources to make life more comfortable.

Biological Energy Sources Energy provided by burning wood enabled people to cook food, heat living areas, and develop primitive metallurgy. Dense, rapidly growing settlements quickly outstripped wood production, and new fuel sources such as coal had to be utilized.

Increased Use of Wood The development of complex early civilizations resulted in the development of cities and led to an increased demand for energy. Dense populations of humans made heavy use of wood for fuel and building materials. They eventually used up the readily available sources and had to import wood or seek alternative forms of fuel.

Fossil Fuels and the Industrial Revolution During the Carboniferous period, (286-362 million years ago) conditions were conducive to the formation of large deposits of coal. Oil and natural gas formed primarily from one-celled marine organisms. During the Industrial Revolution, machines replaced human and animal labor in the manufacture and transportation of goods. Steam engines converting heat energy into forward motion were central to this transformation. Countries or regions without large coal deposits were consequently left behind.

Fossil Fuels and the Industrial Revolution Prior to the Industrial Revolution, goods were manufactured on a small scale in private homes. Expanding factories needed larger labor pools, thus people began congregating around factories and cities. Widespread use of coal in cities resulted in increased levels of air pollution. Within 200 years, daily per capita energy consumption of industrialized nations increased eightfold.

Changes in Energy Sources

The Role of the Automobile The invention of the automobile dramatically increased the demand for oil products. The growth of the automobile industry led to roadway construction, which required energy. Better roads permitted higher speeds. Higher speeds permitted bigger, faster cars. Bigger, faster cars required better roads. Convenience of the automobile led to two-car families. Job growth in automobile-related industries. Major role in development of industrialized nations.

Energy-Demanding Lifestyle

The Role of the Automobile Cars altered people’s lifestyles: Vacationers could travel greater distances. People could live farther from work, leading to sprawling cities and suburbs. In the suburbs, labor-saving, energy-consuming devices became essential in the home. We expect to see Florida oranges, California lettuces, and Central American bananas in any supermarket in North America. They must be processed, refrigerated, and transported to distant locations.

Growth in the Use of Natural Gas Initially, natural gas was burned as a waste product at oil wells. Before 1940, it accounted for less than 10% of energy consumption. By 1970, it accounted for about 30% of energy needs. Currently, it accounts for 23% of U.S. consumption. It is primarily used for home heating and industrial purposes.

8.2 How Energy Is Used To maintain their style of living, individuals in the United States use about twice as much energy as people in France, Germany, or Japan, about 3.5 times more energy than the people of China, and about 16 times more energy than the people of India.

8.2 How Energy Is Used Industrialized nations use energy roughly equally for: Residential / commercial uses Industrial uses Transportation Less-developed countries use most energy for residential purposes. Cooking and heating Developing countries use much of their energy to develop industry.

Energy Sources and Uses in the United States

Residential and Commercial Energy Use In North America, 16% of energy is used for residential and 12% for commercial purposes. In Canada, about 60% of residential energy is used for heating. In Africa and Asia much of the household energy is used for cooking, and comes from wood. Early estimates suggested that Computer systems and the Internet would consume over 10 percent of the U.S. electrical energy supply. More recent estimates put the energy consumed at about 3 percent of the electrical energy supply.

Industrial Energy Use The amount of energy countries use for industrial processes varies considerably. Countries that are developing new industries dedicate a high percentage of their energy use to them. Brazil and China devote over 40 percent of their energy use to industrial purposes. Highly industrialized countries use a significant amount of their energy in industry, but their energy use is high in other sectors as well. In the United States, industry claims about 20 percent of the energy used.

Transportation Energy Uses Per capita energy use for transportation is high in developing countries and highest in highly developed countries. The specific combination of bus, rail, waterways, and private automobiles is the main factor in determining a country’s energy use for transportation. In countries with high population densities, rail and bus transport are particularly efficient.

How Americans Get to Work

8.3 Electrical Energy Electrical energy is such a large proportion of energy consumed in most countries that it deserves special comment. Almost all electrical energy is produced as a result of burning fossil fuels. Because the transportation of electrical energy is so simple and the uses to which it can be put are so varied, electricity is a major form in which energy is supplied to people of the world.

8.4 The Economics and Politics of Energy Use A direct link exists between economic growth and the availability of inexpensive energy. Most industrial societies want to ensure a continuous supply of affordable energy. The higher the price of energy, the more expensive goods and services become. Subsidies help keep energy costs down.

Fuel Economy and Government Policy Automobile fuel efficiency is one area in which government policy has had significant impact. Most of the differences in gasoline prices among countries are a result of taxes and reflect differences in government policy toward motor vehicle transportation.

Fuel Economy and Government Policy When we compare the kinds of automobiles driven, we find a direct relationship between the cost of fuel and fuel efficiency. The average European car driver pays more than twice as much for fuel as U.S. and Canadian drivers and uses about 30 percent less fuel to drive the same distance as a U.S. driver.

Fuel Economy and Government Policy Governments often charge road users to help build and repair roads by taxing fuel. Many European countries raise more money from fuel taxes than they spend on building and repairing roads. U.S. only raises 50% of monies needed for roads from fuel taxes. Low fuel costs in the U.S. encourage more travel, which increases road repair costs.

The Importance of Opec The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) consists of 13 countries. OPEC nations control about 72% of the world’s estimated oil reserves (1,300 billion barrels). From 2011 through 2013 oil has traded around $100 per barrel.

8.5 Energy Consumption Trends In 2012, world energy consumption was around 12,500 million metric tons of oil equivalent, an increase of over 20 percent over 10 years. Of this total, conventional fossil fuels—oil, natural gas, and coal—accounted for nearly 90 percent. Over half of world energy consumption is by the 25 member countries of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the developed nations of the world. Available Energy Sources Oil 33% Coal 30% Natural Gas 24% Nuclear energy and hydropower provide the rest.

Changes in World Energy Consumption by Region

Political and Economic Factors The primary factors determining energy use: Political stability in oil-producing countries Price of oil During the 1980s, energy costs in North America and Europe declined, and people became less concerned about energy consumption. They used more energy to heat and cool their homes, bought more appliances, and larger cars.

8.5 Energy Consumption Trends Energy consumption behavior of most people is motivated by economics rather than a desire to wisely use energy resources. Over the past several years, world oil prices have been extremely volatile. Since OPEC and countries of the Middle East control over 40 percent of the world’s oil production and over 70 percent of the oil reserves, political stability in this region is very important.

Summary A direct correlation exists between the amount of energy used and the complexity of civilizations. Fossil-fuel consumption in conjunction with the invention of labor-saving machines resulted in the Industrial Revolution, which led to the development of technology-oriented societies today in the developed world. The invention of the automobile caused major changes in the lifestyles of people that led to greater consumption of energy.

Summary Because of the high dependence of modern societies on oil as a source of energy, OPEC countries can set the price of oil through collective action. In general, rich countries use large amounts of energy and poor countries use much less. Analysts expect the worldwide demand for energy to increase steadily and the growth in energy usage by those countries becoming industrialized to be greater than that of already-industrialized nations.