Carl Jung

Biography Born in 1875 in Switzerland to a poor country pastor and his wife Had trouble talking with father Viewed Mom as both good and bad Very lonely, introverted child with strange ideas, dreams, and visions that he viewed as valuable communications with the paranormal May have suffered childhood psychosis; still debated

Career and relationship with Freud Became a medical doctor who specialized in psychiatry Met Freud in 1907 and quickly became close with him Association with Freud ended in 1913 over Freud’s preoccupation with sexuality The break left both men devastated. Jung began a period of self-analysis and writing in “The Red Book” He developed his own school of thought called analytical psychology.

The Levels of the Psyche The Conscious Ego: similar in scope and meaning to Freud’s concept of the ego The Personal Unconscious: contains thoughts and feelings that aren’t currently part of conscious awareness. Thoughts are sometimes repressed but sometimes they’re just not consciously being thought about. The Collective Unconscious: a deeper level of unconsciousness made up of powerful emotional symbols called archetypes common to all people; “inherited” from ancestors.

Archetypes There are as many archetypes as there are personal experiences. The universal and prototypical images, objects, and types of people or experiences that our ancestors have encountered through the generations and have gained importance due to the significant role they play in day to day living Imprinted in our psyche As many as there are personal experiences Most commonly manifest themselves in our dreams When attached to personal experiences can make a complex Believed these could take control of the personality if too prominent Believed groups could project the meaning of archetypes

Common Archetypes Anima/Animus Magician/trickster Child-God Mother Wise old man Hero Demon Shadow Persona Hermaphrodite

Complexes A complex is a group of emotionally charged feelings, thoughts, and ideas that are related to a particular theme. The strength of any given complex is determined by its libido, or “value.” The complex has constellating power—it has the ability to draw new ideas into itself and interpret them. Like a magnet that draws related experiences. Have important implications in interpersonal relationships (how we react towards others).

Functions Jung posited four functions of the mind: Sensing (Is something there?) Thinking (What is it that’s there?) Feeling (What’s it worth?) Intuiting (Where did it come from, and where is it going?) All four of these functions are present in all humans, but one usually dominates.

Sensing and Thinking Sensing Getting info through the senses (senses something is there but not what it is) Good at looking, listening to, and getting to know the world An irrational function Occurs on the conscious level Thinking Evaluating info rationally and logically (therefore a rational function) Gives names to objects sensed.

Feeling and Intuiting Feeling Evaluating info by weighing one’s overall, emotional response Judges value to an individual and whether good or bad Occurs on the unconscious level A rational function Intuiting Perception outside the usual conscious processes Provides hunches when factual info is not available Based on the complex integration of large amounts of information An irrational function

Attitudes Jung also posited two major attitudes: Extraversion Introversion He considered both of these to be separate and opposing constructs, although they’re both present in each person. One usually dominates.

Jung's Typology Eight combinations of the functions and attitudes Form the basis of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Jung considered himself to be an intuitive introvert.

Alfred Adler

Biography Born in 1870 in Vienna Second child of the family; older brother was Sigmund, younger brother, Rudolph, died in childhood Was a frail child who had several brushes with death Became a doctor to learn how to defeat death Graduated from the University of Vienna in 1895 and set up his own practice Married Raissa Epstein and had four children

Disagreements with Freud 1902: invited to join Freud’s Vienna Psychoanalytic Society and eventually became president of it 1911: left the group because of heated disagreements with Freud and the others over the idea that pleasure and sexuality were the prime motivators for humans Set up his own society called the Society for free Psychoanalysis (later changed to the Society for Individual Psychology).

Individual Psychology Adler named his theory “Individual Psychology” because he believed that human motivations were complex and unique to the individual. He thought humans were motivated by their perceived niche in society. Like Jung, he believed in the teleological (goal-directed) nature of humans. Also much more concerned than Freud was with social conditions. Believed that people had to take preventive measures to avoid personality disturbances.

Inferiority Complex 1930: Adler wrote that a central core of personality was striving for superiority. Inferiority complex arises when people feel overwhelmed with a sense of helplessness or powerlessness that leaves them feeling inferior. Normal feelings of incompetence become exaggerated, and person feels hopeless that goals can be achieved.

Dealing with Inferiority People deal with inferiority in two ways: Compensation: trying to build up the weak areas and concentrate on other areas. Motivated to strive from a “felt minus” (feeling of inferiority) to a “felt plus” (feelings of superiority, perfection, and totality). Motivating force behind all behavior is called Striving for Perfection or Superiority—the desire for competence and mastery over one’s environment.

More on overcoming inferioity Masculine protest—the way in which a person strives for competence and independence rather than being merely an outgrowth of his or her parents Perfection striving—people spend their lives trying to meet their fictional goals (sometimes called fictional finalism)—imagined future achievements.

Superiority Complex An exaggerated arrogance in an attempt to maintain one’s self-worth and overcome an inferiority complex. Perceived as obnoxious by others.

Two additions to Adler's theory Adler’s theory started changing as his thoughts about human motivation changed. Organ inferiority—the idea that everyone is born with some physical weakness where incapacity or disease is most likely to take root. The body tries to compensate for the weakness in another area—an important motivator of life choices. Aggressive drive—a reaction to perceived helplessness/inferiority—lashing out against inability to master something.

Style of Life Established by age 4 or 5 using the Creative Self, the dynamic force that allows us to use our experiences and heredity to construct our “style of life,” including goals, self-concept, feelings for others, and attitudes toward the world. The interaction between heredity, environment, and one’s creative power. Should not be rigid or inflexible. Can be identified through early memories. Doesn’t matter if memories are true or not. Represents one’s first perceptions of self and world.

Social issues Adler was very concerned about three fundamental social issues, which are all intertwined: Occupational tasks—choosing/pursuing a career that makes one feel worthwhile. Societal tasks—creating friendships/social networks Love tasks—finding a suitable life partner.

Adler's Typology Based on the Greek notion of temperamental humors Greek Humors Greek Type Social Interest Activity Adler’s Type Yellow bile Choleric Low High Ruling-Dominant Phlegm Phlegmatic Getting-leaning Black bile Melancholic Very low Avoiding Blood Sanguine Socially Useful

Ruling/Dominant Aggressive & domineering May bully others May be passive-aggressive (suicide attempts, addictions) Seeks to dominate others in some way

Getting-leaning Takes from others Somewhat passive Dependent on others for everything Most common type, according to Adler

Avoiding Conquers problems by running away Tries not to deal with problems at all Phobias are an example

Socially useful Meets problems realistically Cooperative and caring The only orientation thought to grow out of early experiences Innate trait that makes all humans value societal contributions and helping others Most productive way to compensate for feelings of inferiority The more socially oriented, the healthier the person: Gemeinschaftsgefuhl

Maladjustment in Neurotics Underdeveloped social interest Live in their own private world Set their goals too high Have rigid and dogmatic style of life Might develop in children with physical/intellectual disabilities—the mind sees the body as a burden, and they become self-centered (egoistic) as a result. Road to physical & mental health is overcome self-centeredness.

Safeguarding Strategies Neurosis creates a need for safeguarding strategies, similar to defense mechanisms. Excuses or rationalizing strategies (“Yes, but…”; “If only…”) Aggressive strategies (open or disguised hostility toward others) Depreciation (devalue others through threats or inflating own value) Accusation (blame others—no personal responsibility) Self-accusation (blame self in such a way that it attracts attention, sympathy—sometimes induces guilt in others) Distancing strategies—avoiding situations and problems; avoiding challenges

Parenting: Mom's perspective Social interest arises from mother-child relationship during first months of infancy Mom needs to foster a bond that encourages child’s social interest and fosters a sense of cooperation Mom should be centered on her child’s well-being not her own needs and wants. If she favors the child over the father, child may become spoiled or pampered. If she favors father over child, child may feel neglected and unloved.

Parenting: Father's perspective Father must show caring attitude toward wife and others Ideal father cooperates on equal footing with mother in caring for child & treating child as human being Successful father avoids the errors of emotional detachment and paternal authoritarianism. Emotionally detached fathers child has a sense of neglect and warped social interest; parasitic attachment to Mom Paternal authoritarianism  sees Dad as tyrant; strives for power and personal superiority

Importance of Parents Adler believed parents were so important early in life that the relationship with mother and father smothers the effects of heredity. By the time a child is 5, the effects of heredity become blurred by the powerful influences of the child’s social environment. By this time, environmental forces have shaped or modified nearly every aspect of child’s personality.

Birth Order Effects Adler believed that birth order was an important factor in determining personality. First child: the worst position to be in. Second-borns: the best position Last-borns: second worst position Birth order has generated a lot of research.

Adler's view of birth order effects Positive traits Negative traits Oldest child Nurturing and protective of others Good organizer Highly anxious, exaggerated feelings of power, unconscious hostility; fights for acceptance; must always be “right”; highly critical of others; uncooperative Second child Highly motivated, cooperative, and moderately competitive Highly competitive; easily distracted Youngest child Realistically ambitious Pampered; dependent on others; wants to excel in everything; unrealistically ambitious Only children Socially mature Exaggerated feelings of superiority; low feelings of cooperation; inflated sense of self; pampered

Research about Firstborns/Only children More achievement-oriented and perfectionist. Also more visits to mental health clinics More likely to support parental authority Less open to new ideas More responsible, ambitious, organized, academically successful, energetic, self-disciplined, and conscientious. Negative side: more neurotic, anxious, temperamental More assertive and dominant

Middle-borns Lots of research on these children Less likely to define self-identities by their families Feel less close to families; more into friends than siblings More rebellious, impulsive, less conscientious Less likely to ask parents for help or visit parents Report feeling less loved as children More likely to live farther apart from parents

Later-borns Charmer of the family More agreeable Warmer More idealistic Easygoing, trusting, accommodating, altruistic, adventurous Prone to fantasy, attracted by novelty; untraditional More sociable, affectionate, fun-loving, excitement-seeking, and more self-conscious.

Bottom line on birth order effects Not shown consistently across studies Birth order alone is not as big of a factor as birth order combined with other factors such as number of children, level of conflict between each child and parents, gender of the children, spacing between children, temperament, social class, and loss of parent. Birth order studies usually do not separate biological birth order from rearing order. They need to do this.

Social Interest For Adler, social interest was of supreme importance. Not synonymous with charity. The sole yardstick for measuring psychological health The “sole criterion for human values” The only gauge for judging one’s worth and the value of a life. To the degree that people possess true social interest, they are psychologically mature.