Study Area 8 Development across the life span

Development Across the Life Span Developmental psychology is the scientific study of how and why human beings change over the course of their life. Originally concerned with infants and children, the field has expanded to include adolescence, adult development, aging, and the entire lifespan. Lifespan development is the name psychologists have given to the physical and cognitive changes that occur throughout a person's life Human development: the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death

Developmental Research Designs

Developmental Research Designs Longitudinal design: research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time cohort effect: impact on development when a group of people share common time period or life experience

Longitudinal Design Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years

Longitudinal Design Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years Compare Compare Tested at 1 year (Time 1) Again at 4 years (Time 2) Again at 7 years (Time 3) Same Participants Different Times

Developmental Research Designs Cross-sectional design: research design in which several different age groups of participants are studied at one particular point in time Cross-sequential design: research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but also followed and assessed over time.

Nature versus Nurture Nature: the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions Nurture: the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions Behavioral genetics: focuses on nature vs. nurture

Genetics and Development Genetics: the science of inherited traits behavioral genetics DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism

DNA Molecule In this model of a DNA molecule, the two strands making up the sides of the “twisted ladder” are composed of sugars and phosphates. The “rungs” of the ladder that link the two strands are amines. Amines contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life.

Genetics and Development Gene: section of DNA having a certain pattern of chemical elements dominant: referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait recessive: referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene

Genetics and Development Chromosome: tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA Chromosome disorders include Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s syndrome, and Turner’s syndrome Genetic disorders include PKU, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disease

Genetic defects and chromosomal abnormalities are both sometimes called "genetic conditions" or "genetic disorders," but the difference lies in how much of the DNA is actually affected. A chromosomal abnormality affects an entire chromosome and many or all of the genes that make it up. The most common chromosomal abnormalities are duplications, where an individual has an extra copy of a chromosome.  When differentiating genetic defects from chromosomal abnormalities, it can be less confusing to call genetic defects "single-gene defects" because they involve mutations in individual genes. Though the affected gene may not give proper instructions, the individual's overall chromosome number and structure are normal.

Conception Conception: the moment at which a female becomes pregnant Ovum: the female sex cell, or egg Fertilization: the union of the ovum and sperm Zygote: cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm; divides into many cells, eventually forming the baby

Conception and Twins Monozygotic twins: identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo Dizygotic twins: often called fraternal twins occur when two eggs get fertilized by two different sperm, resulting in the development of two zygotes in the uterus at the same time

Monozygotic and Dizygotic Twins Because identical twins come from one fertilized egg (zygote), they are called monozygotic. Fraternal twins, who come from two different fertilized eggs, are called dizygotic.

Periods of Pregnancy The three periods of prenatal development (not trimesters).

Periods of Pregnancy Germinal period: first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining embryo is the name for the developing organism from two weeks to eight weeks after fertilization

Periods of Pregnancy Embryonic period: the period from two to eight weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop critical periods: times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant teratogen: any factor that can cause a birth defect

Periods of Pregnancy Fetal period: the time from about eight weeks after conception until the birth of the child fetus: name for the developing organism from eight weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby viability: the point at which it is possible for an infant to survive outside the womb, usually about 22-26 weeks

Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood Infants are born with 5 reflexes that help them survive grasping Moro (startle) rooting stepping sucking

grasping reflex startle reflex aka Moro reflex rooting reflex Infant Survival Reflexes Shown here are (a) grasping reflex; (b) startle reflex (also known as the Moro reflex); (c) rooting reflex (when you touch a baby‘s cheek it will turn toward your hand, open its mouth, and search for the nipple); grasping reflex startle reflex aka Moro reflex rooting reflex

stepping reflex sucking reflex Infant Survival Reflexes (d) stepping reflex; and (e) sucking reflex. These infant reflexes can be used to check the health of an infant’s nervous system. If a reflex is absent or abnormal, it may indicate brain damage or some other neurological problem. stepping reflex sucking reflex

Six Motor Milestones Shown here are (a) raising head and chest - 2 to 4 months, (b) rolling over—2 to 5 months, (c) sitting up with support—4 to 6 months, raising head & chest rolling over sitting up with support

sitting up without support crawling walking Motor Milestones (d) sitting up without support—6 to 7 months, (e) crawling—7 to 8 months, and (f) walking—8 to 18 months. The motor milestones develop as the infant gains greater voluntary control over the muscles in its body, typically from the top of the body downward. This pattern is seen in the early control of the neck muscles and the much later development of control of the legs and feet. sitting up without support crawling walking

Physical Development in Infancy and Childhood The senses, except for vision, are fairly well developed at birth Brain development synaptic pruning or axon pruning is the process of synapse elimination that occurs between early childhood and the onset of puberty in many mammals, including humans. Pruning starts near the time of birth and is completed by the time of sexual maturation in humans.

Cognitive Development Cognitive development: the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory Jean Piaget: developed a four-stage theory of cognitive development based on observation of infants and children schemes: mental concepts formed by children as they experience new situations and events

Jean Piaget

Piaget’s Stage Theory Sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment The first stage of Piaget's theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. object permanence: the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight

Piaget’s Stage Theory Preoperational stage: Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world egocentrism: the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes centration: in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features

Piaget’s Stage Theory Preoperational Stage (cont’d) conservation: in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature irreversibility: in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action

Conservation Experiment A typical conservation task consists of pouring equal amounts of water into two glasses of the same size and shape. When the water from one of these glasses is poured into a taller, narrower glass, children who cannot yet conserve tend to focus (centrate) on the height of the water in the second glass, assuming that the second glass now has more water than the first one. In the second example, pennies are laid out in two equal lines. When the pennies in the top line are spaced out, the child who cannot yet conserve will centrate on the top line and assume that there are actually more pennies in that line.

Piaget’s Stage Theory Concrete operations stage: third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-aged child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking Formal operations: Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking

Vygotsky’s Theory Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory of human learning describes learning as a social process and the origination of human intelligence in society or culture. The major theme of Vygotsky’s theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Scaffolding: process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, then reduces the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable

Vygotsky’s Theory Zone of proximal development (ZPD): the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher private speech: Vygotsky viewed this as a way for a child to “think out loud” and advance cognitively

Language Development Language development allows children to: think in words rather than images ask questions communicate their needs form concepts Child-directed speech: children attend to higher-pitched, repetitious, sing-song speech

Stages of Language Development Cooing Babbling One-Word Speech (Holophrases) Telegraphic Speech Whole sentences

Autism Spectrum Disorder Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a group of developmental disabilities that can cause significant social, communication and behavioral challenges.  myths relating ASD to vaccines have been debunked

Autism Spectrum Disorder People with ASD often have problems with social, emotional, and communication skills. They might repeat certain behaviors and might not want change in their daily activities. Many people with ASD also have different ways of learning, paying attention, or reacting to things. Signs of ASD begin during early childhood and typically last throughout a person’s life. Children or adults with ASD might: not point at objects to show interest (for example, not point at an airplane flying over) not look at objects when another person points at them have trouble relating to others or not have an interest in other people at all avoid eye contact and want to be alone have trouble understanding other people’s feelings or talking about their own feelings

Autism Spectrum Disorder Children or adults with ASD might: prefer not to be held or cuddled, or might cuddle only when they want to appear to be unaware when people talk to them, but respond to other sounds be very interested in people, but not know how to talk, play, or relate to them repeat or echo words or phrases said to them, or repeat words or phrases in place of normal language have trouble expressing their needs using typical words or motions not play “pretend” games (for example, not pretend to “feed” a doll) repeat actions over and over again have trouble adapting when a routine changes have unusual reactions to the way things smell, taste, look, feel, or sound lose skills they once had (for example, stop saying words they were using)

Temperament Temperament: behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth easy: regular, adaptable, and happy difficult: irregular, nonadaptable, and irritable slow to warm up: need to adjust gradually to change Temperament influences how a child behaves toward individuals and objects around them and how the environment affects them.  This concept also indicates that many behavioral tendencies are inborn – not the result of faulty parenting. 

Attachment Attachment: the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver secure: willing to explore; upset when mother departs, but easily soothed upon her return avoidant: unattached; explores without “touching base”

Attachment Attachment (cont’d) ambivalent: insecurely attached; upset when mother leaves and then angry with mother upon her return disorganized-disoriented: insecurely attached and sometimes abused or neglected; child seems fearful, dazed, and depressed

Self-Concept Self-concept is the image you have of yourself based on your interactions with the important people in your life.

Erikson’s Stages Trust versus mistrust: first stage of personality development the infant’s basic sense of trust or mistrust develops as a result of consistent or inconsistent care Autonomy versus shame and doubt: second stage of personality development the toddler strives for physical independence

Erikson’s Stages Initiative versus guilt: third stage of personality development the preschool-aged child strives for emotional and psychological independence and attempts to satisfy curiosity about the world Industry versus inferiority: fourth stage of personality development the adolescent strives for a sense of competence and self-esteem

1st four stages of development Derived from Erikson, 1950

Erikson’s Fifth Stage Identity versus role confusion: fifth stage of personality development the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self Parent–teen conflict

Erikson’s Stages Intimacy versus isolation : an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self 6

Erikson’s Stages Generativity versus stagnation : providing guidance to one’s children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteering parenting styles Authoritarian - very strict and controlling Authoritative - good Permissive - bad Optional Video 7

Erikson’s Stages Ego integrity versus despair : sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life and the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego 8

LO 8.9 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging Last 3 stages of development LO 8.9 Physical and Cognitive Changes during Adulthood and Aging Derived from Erikson, 1950

Freud’s stage theory In Freudian psychology, psychosexual development is a central element of the psychoanalytic sexual drive theory, that human beings, from birth, possess an instinctual libido (sexual energy) that develops in five stages.

Puberty and Adolescence Adolescence: the period of life from about age thirteen to the early twenties, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult Puberty: the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak period of about four years

Egocentric Thinking Formal operations may begin to emerge Piaget’s final stage thinking of hypothetical situations egocentric thought remains Egocentrism refers to the child's inability to see a situation from another person's point of view. According to Piaget, the egocentric child assumes that other people see, hear, and feel exactly the same as the child does.

Egocentric Thinking Personal fable: young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Imaginary audience: young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are

Kohlberg’s Levels of Morality Preconventional morality: behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior Conventional morality: behavior is governed by conforming to society’s norms of behavior Postconventional morality: behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual may be in disagreement with accepted social norms

Physical Changes and Aging Adulthood begins in the early twenties and ends with old age and death divided into young adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood Emerging adulthood is proposed as a new conception of development for the period from the late teens through the twenties, with a focus on ages 18-25.

Physical Changes and Aging Women experience a physical decline in the reproductive system called the climacteric ends at about age fifty with menopause: the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability Andropause: gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of males The reduction is rarely noticeable in men younger than 60.

Physical Changes and Aging Increase in health problems Decrease in reaction time Challenges in memory most likely caused by stress and high volumes of information to maintain

Theories of Aging Cellular clock theory: based on the idea that cells only have so many times that they can reproduce once that limit is reached, damaged cells begin to accumulate Wear-and-tear theory: as time goes by, repeated use and abuse of the body’s tissues cause it to be unable to repair all the damage

Theories of Aging Free radical theory: oxygen molecules with an unstable electron move around the cell, damaging cell structures as they go Activity theory: theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby

Stages of Death and Dying

The END – Study Area 8 Development across the life span