Studying Society Theories make sense of facts, but how do sociologists come up with data? Common methods for gathering information Common sources of data include surveys, in-depth interviews and observation, and time use studies.

How Do Sociologists Know What They Know? A scientific approach to knowledge is to acquire knowledge based on objective empirical observation. Observations are empirical if they have been experienced by the senses in some way. Empirical observations can be verified by others. Research is objective when researchers do not allow their personal values or views to influence the collection, analysis, interpretation, or presentation of the data. The view that social researchers can and should suppress their personal values and biases and conduct “value free” research has been predominant in the social sciences for most of the twentieth century, and can be traced back to the work of early sociologist, Max Weber. Today there are many social scientists, especially feminist researchers, that challenge the desirability of separating one’s own values from the selection of research questions and the application of findings. How Do Sociologists Know What They Know? Look at the family with objectivity—this allows conclusions to be drawn in a social situation that are unaffected by one’s own beliefs Essence of scientific method forms a hypothesis—a speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors

Bias Bias The tendency to impose previously held views on the collection and interpretation of facts Gathering data can be done anywhere and from any source, but there are challenges to each method. One of the biggest obstacles in social science is the possibility of bias. There are many sources of bias. Cannot be eliminated completely Transparency in the research process, peer review, and published results help mitigate bias.

Methods of Sociological Data Collection It is rarely possible for sociologists to conduct randomized experiments on families. Research about families is generally done by using social surveys or observational studies, and are often supplemented using existing data, conducting historical and comparative studies, and time use studies. Methods of Sociological Data Collection Empirical observations can be made by: Experiments -- laboratory and field Social surveys Observations Analyzing existing statistics and demographic studies Historical studies Time use studies

Experiments greatly simplify the environment soo that researchers can more easily observe associations between the varialbes of interest. Researchers manipulate the independent variable (the factor they believe to be the causal agent in the situation) and then watch to see if expected changes occur in the dependent variable (the outcome of interest). This guarantees that changes in the independent variable occur before changes in the dependent variable. Experiments also provide a way to rule out alternative causes of the observed changes in the dependent variable through random assignment of participants to the experimental and control groups. This is to also rule out existing differences between subjects as possible explanations for their behavior. The greatest disadvantage of the experimental method is that the laboratory setting and the simplification of the environment often result in artificial situations. Another limitation of experiments is that they may raise ethical issues. Plus it is very difficult to study families using this method. Experiments An experiment is a highly controlled method of attempting to demonstrate the existence of a causal relationship between two variables. Independent and dependent variables Random assignment into experimental and control groups Pre-testing and post-testing both groups

Sample Survey A research method in which identical questions are asked of many different people and their answers are gathered into one large data file. Questionnaire – respondent reads and writes answers Interview – researcher asks the respondents and records a spoken response The most common method for gathering data in sociology Looking for a connection between an interrelated sequence of events Asking people information about their lives and opinions from a representative pool Random selection is preferred for effective results. Many ways to produce error or skew results Sample surveys are effective when we can use them to predict individual behavior. Advantages of surveys: Large sample size easy to obtain Flexibility Lower costs than other methods Efficiency Anonymity Limitations of surveys: Sample selection may be biases, and therefore, not representative of the population of interest Poor wording of questions may affect answers Low response rates may bias results and affect our ability to generalize the findings

Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Surveys Sample Surveys Cross-sectional Surveys A research method when a sample of people are interviewed one time only Longitudinal Surveys A research method in which the same people are interviewed repeatedly over a period of time Longitudinal surveys allow researchers to track people’s answers over time. Can be useful for studying social change

Up Documentary The Up British documentary series (partially created by Michael Apted) on Granada television Began in 1964 when the subjects were 7 years old and revisits them every 7 years. The subjects were picked to represent different socioeconomic backgrounds. The central premise was that a child’s class status determined his or her future. The show was built around the motto, “Give me a child until he is seven and I will give you the man.” 56 Up is the latest installment.

Interviews and Observation In-Depth Interviews Laboratory observation Field observation Participant observation Non-participant observation Ethnographies Sample surveys need to rely on certain assumptions because of the nature of the methodology Sample survey answers may be superficial. In-depth interviews and observation can get to a deeper understanding in some cases. Smaller number of respondents, but longer interviews Direct observation can study interpersonal dynamics and the subtleties of daily life. Laboratory observation occurs in a controlled environment. The researcher has more control over the context in which the behavior occurs There is greater confidence in the conclusions about causality Field observation provides a real and more valid setting, but little or no control for the researcher. In participant observation, the researcher actually participates in the behavior being observed Researcher poses as a member of the situation or group under study Researcher’s presence may be known to the subjects (overt) or hidden from them (covert) Ethnographies are observational studies of other cultures, where researchers go to another society and record descriptions of their customs and practices Cross-cultural studies can be important for our understanding of our own way of life Frequently demonstrate that marriages and families can vary greatly Emphasize that there may not be one perfect way of organizing intimate and family relationships Advantages of observational studies: Behavior is directly observed Researcher avoids memory distortion Limitations of observational studies: Presence of observer may bias the behavior being studied; this is called the “Hawthorne effect” May violate sociological research ethical guidelines, especially if it is covert participation research: Invasion of privacy, informed consent, harm to participants, deception

Demography is the study of populations Family demography is the study of family and household size and composition, and the freque3ncy or timing of family-related events such as marriage, childbearing, and divorce. Advantages of demographic studies: Provides information on the population Reveals relationships among family processes Limitations of demographic studies: Doesn’t reveal motivations that influence behavior In less developed countries, data may occur at infrequent or irregular intervals making comparisons over time more difficult Demographic Studies Demography is the study of populations Processes of births, deaths, and migration Age structure of the population Data for demographic studies Official records and existing documents (e.g. census) Social surveys

Focus is on earlier times Data come from a variety of sources: Until recently, most historical research has dealt with elite groups in society and with major military and political events. In recent years, more historians are studying the lives of ordinary people. This type of research is called social history and often features marriage and family life of earlier times. So much of social history is devoted to the study of marriage and family life in the past in towns and villages of Europe and North America, that there is now a specialized subfield called family history. Advantages of historical studies: Provide a long-range perspective on human behavior Gives us insight into what family life was like in earlier times Limitations of historical studies: Restricted to the data that have survived over time Most historical data documents the lives of the upper classes The further back in time we go, the less we know about the lives of ordinary people Historical Studies Focus is on earlier times Data come from a variety of sources: Official records (tax listings, parish lists of births and deaths) Wills Personal written communications (diaries, journals, letters)

Time Use Studies Time Use Studies Surveys that collect data on how people spend their time during a sample period, such as a single day or week Most of family life informal without a formal record of daily activities Time use studies produce a more detailed account of what goes on in family life. Researchers can collect detailed data on how family members spend their time. Can include the use of surveys about time use Can also include time diary studies Especially valuable in the study of work and families