Unit 7 Land Management Timber Harvesting and Federal Lands Chapter 12 Part 2

Harvesting timber: clear-cutting All trees in the area are cut Most cost-efficient Greatest impact on forest ecosystems May mimic some natural forms of disturbance Destroy entire communities Soil erosion Public is outraged over this type of harvesting

Harvesting: other methods Seed-tree cutting = a small number of seed-producing trees are left standing to reseed the area Shelter-wood cutting = a small number of trees are left to provide shelter for the seedlings Selection systems = only select trees are cut Single tree selection = widely spaced trees are cut Group tree selection = small patches of trees are cut ***All methods disturb habitat Change forest structure and composition Increase erosion, siltation, runoff, flooding, landslides

Public forests can be managed for many things Increased public awareness caused people to urge changed forest management For recreation, wildlife and ecosystem integrity, instead of logging Critics protested federal subsidies of logging companies Multiple use policy = national forests were to be managed for recreation, habitat, minerals and other uses In reality, timber production is the primary use The Forest Service loses $100 million/yr by selling timber below cost

The National Forest Management Act (1976) Mandated that plans for renewable resource management had to be drawn up for every national forest Guidelines included: Consideration of both economic and environmental factors Provision for species diversity Ensuring research and monitoring Permitting only sustainable harvests Protection of soils and wetlands Assessing all impacts before logging to protect resources

New forestry management is under attack Calls for timber cuts that mimic natural disturbances Harvesting methods are based on ecosystem approaches The Bush administration has rolled back these regulations Freed managers from requirements of the Act Loosened environmental protections Repealed President Clinton’s roadless rule, which protected 31% of national forests from road building California, Oregon, and New Mexico have sued the government to reinstate the roadless rule

Fire policy also stirs controversy For over 100 years, the Forest Service suppressed all fires But many ecosystems depend on fires Fire suppression allows woody accumulation, which produces kindling for future fires Which are much worse Housing development near forests and climate change will increase fire risk Prescribed (controlled) burns = burning areas of forests under carefully controlled conditions Effective May get out of control Impeded by public misunderstanding and political interference Healthy Forests Restoration Act (2003) = promotes removal of small trees, underbrush and dead trees Passed in response to forest fires

Salvage logging Removal of dead trees following a natural disturbance Seems logical, but is really destructive Snags (standing dead trees) provide nesting cavities for countless animals Removing timber from recently burned areas increases erosion and soil damage Promotes future fires Increases commercial logging in national forests Decreases oversight and public participation

Sustainable forestry is gaining ground Sustainable forestry certification = only products produced sustainably can be certified International Organization for Standardization (ISO), Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) have different standards Consumers look for logos to buy sustainably produced timber Companies such as Home Depot sell sustainable wood Encourages better logging practices

Agricultural land use Agriculture covers 38% of the Earths’ terrestrial surface 26% supports pasture, 12% supports crops The most widespread type of land use Causes tremendous environmental impacts Governments spend billions of dollars on subsidies Proponents say farmers need this insurance against bad years Critics say farmers should buy their own insurance

Wetlands have been drained for farming Many crop lands grow on former wetlands Governments have encouraged wetland draining Promote settlement and farming Transferred land to states Stimulated draining Less than half the wetlands remain Many people have a new view of wetlands Not worthless swamps, but valuable ecosystems Demanded regulations to safeguard remaining wetlands But, because of loopholes, wetlands are still being lost Conservation Reserve Program (1985) subsidized farmers to take highly erodable land out of production Turn it into wildlife habitat

Livestock graze one-fourth of Earth’s Land Grazing can be sustainable if done carefully and at low intensity Bureau of Land Management (BLM) = owns and manages most U.S. rangeland Nation’s single largest landowner: 106 million ha (261 million acres) across 12 western states Ranchers can graze cattle on BLM lands for low fees Low fees encourage overgrazing Ranchers and environmentalists have joined to preserve ranchland against development and urban sprawl Overexploitation of resources caused great damage to the American West Poor farming practices, overgrazing, farming arid lands John Wesley Powell in the late 1800s called for agencies to base management on science Farming Western lands had to account for arid conditions His ideas were ignored, contributing to failures such as the Dust Bowl of the 1930s

Parks and reserves Reasons for establishing parks and reserves include: Monumentalism = preserving areas with enormous, beautiful or unusual features, such as the Grand Canyon Offer recreational value to tourists, hikers, fishers, hunters and others Protect areas with utilitarian benefits, such as clean drinking water Use sites that are otherwise economically not valuable and are therefore easy to protect Preservation of biodiversity

Federal parks and reserves began in the U.S. National parks = public lands protected from resource extraction and development Open to nature appreciation and recreation Yellowstone National Park was established in 1872 The Antiquities Act of 1906 The president can declare selected public lands as national monuments Created in 1916 to administer parks and monuments 388 sites totaling 32 million ha (72 million acres) Includes national historic sites, national recreation areas, national wild and scenic rivers 273 million visitors in 2006

National Wildlife Refuges and Wilderness areas Begun in 1903 by President Theodore Roosevelt 37 million ha (91 million acres) in 541 sites U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service administers refuges Management ranges from preservation to manipulation Wildlife havens Allows hunting, fishing, wildlife observation, photography, education Wilderness areas = area is off-limits to development of any kind Open to the public for hiking, nature study, etc. Must have minimal impact on the land Necessary to ensure that humans don’t occupy and modify all natural areas Established within federal lands Overseen by the agencies that administer those areas

Not everyone supports land set-asides Restriction of activities in wilderness areas generated opposition to U.S. land protection policies Some western states want resource extraction and development The wise-use movement = a coalition of individuals and industries that oppose environmental protection Protecting private property, transferring federal lands to state or private hands, promoting motorized recreation on public lands Farmers, ranchers, loggers, mineral and fossil fuel industries

Nonfederal entities also protect land Each U.S. state and Canadian province has agencies that manage resources So do counties and municipalities Land trusts = local or regional organizations that purchase land to protect it The Nature Conservancy is the world’s largest land trust Trusts protect 4.1 million ha (10.2 million acres) Jackson Hole, Wyoming is protected by a land trust

Parks and reserves are increasing internationally Many nations have established national parks Benefit from ecotourism Protected areas now cover 9.6% of the world’s land area Parks do not always receive necessary funding Paper parks = Areas protected on paper but not in reality World heritage sites = protected areas that fall under national sovereignty but are designated or managed by the United Nations 830 sites across 184 countries

The SLOSS dilemma Which is better to protect species? A Single Large Or Several Small reserves? Depends on the species: tigers vs. insects Corridors = protected land that allows animals to travel between islands of protected habitat Animals get more resources Enables gene flow between populations