PERSUASION SOCIAL INFLUENCE & COMPLIANCE GAINING Robert H. Gass & John S. Seiter

Chapter 3 Attitudes and Consistency gst/Shutterstock.com

Attitude Defined An attitude is “a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor” Eagly & Chaiken, 1993 Characteristics of attitudes Learned or acquired, not innate predispositions that guide behavior evaluative dimension like-dislike good-bad attitude object attitudes are directed toward something Rosseli, F., Skelly, J. J., & Mackie, D. M. (1995). Processing rational and emotional messages: The cognitive and affective mediation of persuasion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31, 163–190. Statistics Brain, Dec 7, 2013 Berger, A. A. (2011). Ads, fads, and consumer culture (4th ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Jones, J. P. (2004). Fables, fashions, and facts about advertising. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Attitudes defined--continued Which statements express an attitude, as opposed to a fact or belief? Paris is the most beautiful city in the world Last night, my temperature was 1020 I have a rare blood type: AB- I love skinny jeans, but I loathe man buns A person is more likely to be hit by lightning than to win the lottery Avocados have more fat than any other fruit or vegetable I adore Mindy Kaling Attitude Fact or information

Measuring attitudes Likert scale Rating scale, typically ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree.” A person’s attitude is the average of all the ratings provided. +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Strongly agree Moderately agree Mildly agree Neutral no opinion undecided Mildly disagree Moderately disagree Strongly disagree

Measuring attitudes Semantic Differential scale Bipolar adjectives (opposites) are created A respondent checks the “semantic space” between the adjectives A person’s attitude is the average of all the ratings provided Expert ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Inexpert Bold ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Timid Relaxed ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Tense +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3

Visual ATTITUDE SCALES ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Which face best reflects your attitude toward legalizing recreational marijuana use?

Pitfalls in measuring attitudes social desirability bias giving the polite or socially correct answer non-attitudes making up an attitude to appear informed mindfulness not knowing one’s attitudes

Other ways to infer attitudes Implicit Association Test (IAT) reaction times when making snap judgments reflect attitudes Appearance cues clothing, mannerisms, posture, body art, can reveal attitudes Associations memberships, affiliations, reveal attitudes segmentation analysis examines characteristics of niche groups

Other ways to infer attitudes--continued Behavior Actions, habits, lifestyles, Physiological measures blood pressure, heart rate, galvanic skin response fMRI brain scans mixed results: physiological measures tend to be bi-directional

Reasoned Action APPROACH RAA Fishbein & Ajzen’s model Behavioral beliefs beliefs about performing a behavior “I would be better off if I stopped binge drinking.” Normative beliefs descriptive norms: “Many college students engage in binge drinking.” injunctive norms: “Binge drinking increases the risk of being sexually assaulted.” Perceived behavioral control “I have enough self-control to have 1-2 drinks at a party, then stop drinking.”

Reasoned Action APPROACH RAA

Attitudes as associative networks Attitudes exist in associative networks. Associations are often unconscious or implicit. Changes in one attitude have a “ripple effect” elsewhere in a person’s cognitive system. Persuaders seek to establish connections among attitudes. The goal is to link their product, brand, idea to favorable attitudes.

Manufacturing positive associations Branding fostering a favorable brand image Brand personality cultivating brand relationships aspirational brands Brand authenticity perceived genuineness Bloomicon / Shutterstock.com

Manufacturing positive associations Cause related marketing socially conscious brands moral licensing Sloganeering Sponsorship Miune / Shutterstock.com

Psychological Consistency People desire consistency among their attitudes, beliefs, behaviors. Inconsistency causes psychological discomfort. The greater the psychological discomfort, the greater the desire to restore consistency. Stacey Newman/shutterstock.com

+ _ Consistency theory A child admires Popeye. The child doesn’t like to eat spinach. Popeye is positively associated with spinach. This is a cognitively imbalanced state, which should motivate the child to change one of the associations. _ +

BalanceD and unbalanced states Any combination of even minus signs, or all plus signs is psychologically comfortable. + - Any combination of odd minus signs, or all minus signs is psychologically uncomfortable. + -

Maintaining consistency Denial: ignoring or denying any inconsistency Bolstering: adding rationalizations Bargaining: striking a balance between alternatives Differentiation: separating or distinguishing good and bad qualities of a decision Transcendence: focusing on a greater good, a life lesson, higher purpose Modifying one or more attitudes: changing attitudes to fit a choice or behavior

COGNITIVE DISSONANCE People seek to maintain a stable, positive, self-concept . People rationalize their choices and actions in light of their self- concept. Behavior that contradicts one’s beliefs or self-concept causes dissonance. Making a decision produces dissonance or “buyer’s remorse.” The more important the decision, the greater the dissonance. WAYHOME studio/Shutterstock.com

Psychological reactance Also known as “reverse psychology” Backlash: A perceived threat to one’s freedom produces a defensive reaction. Forbidden fruit: Outlawing something may make it even more attractive. Examples: A pushy salesperson may drive customers away. A parent who criticizes a daughter’s boyfriend may drive the daughter into the boyfriend’s arms.

Counter-attitudinal advocacy Playing “Devil’s Advocate”: No external incentives should be present. The advocacy should be volitional (not compelled). The advocacy should be public (in writing or out loud). The person’s attitudes will shift (partially) toward the contrary position. Art Konovalov/shutterstock.com

Pyschological commitment Once we are committed, it is hard to turn back. A car owner may “throw good money after bad” making one repair after another. Gamblers may double their bets every time they lose. Social customs are designed to increase commitments. wedding customs initiation rituals Commitments can grow legs. People add additional justifications for their original decision.