Basic English Grammar Lessons Assistant Lecturer : Ahmed Najm Abed University of Kufa , Faculty of Education / Department of English .

The infinitive There are two kinds of infinitive – with to and without to . Infinitive with to : I would prefer to sit at the back . Infinitive without to : I would rather sit at the back . The most common use of an infinitive without to is after modal verb, e.g. can e.g. I can sit at the back .

To- infinitive have a perfect or continuous form . Simple – to play . Perfect – to have played. Continuous to be playing . Continuous and perfect – to have been played . Uses : we use a perfect infinitive for something that happened or possibly happened earlier . e.g. I seem to have left my book behind .

We use a continuous infinitive for something happening over a period . e.g. we were happy to be starting on a new adventure . e.g. you are lucky to be living in such a nice place . Note : In some contexts , we can use simple to-infinitive as well as perfect or continuous form . e.g. We expect to complete /to have completed the work by summer . e.g. We expect to be completing / to complete

The to- infinitive used as an adverbial To –infinitive clause can function as an adverbial . It can express ideas such as Purpose , outcome and comment . To- infinitive can express purpose . e.g. my friend has gone to town to do some shopping . e.g. I am writing to inquire about activity holidays . e.g. to get a good seat you need to arrive early.

Outcome : we can sometimes use a to-infinitive clause to express the outcome of an action or process. e.g. Peter came home to find his house on fire . e.g. the prince grew up to be a handsome young man .

Comment : An infinitive clause can also express a comment on the speaker’s honesty . e.g. To be frank , you did not make a very good impression . e.g. I am a bit tired of sightseeing , to tell you the truth .

Conditional Sentences

Sentences : form and function In English grammar, a sentence is a group of words which make a complete sense . The sentences by form are of four types. Simple Compound Complex Compound –complex

Simple Sentence A simple sentence contains a subject and verb. It expresses a single complete thought. A simple sentence is a single independent clause.

Sample Simple Sentences peter went to the store. The music is too loud for my ears. Sarah and peter are going swimming. The pizza smells delicious.

Compound Sentences A compound sentence contains two independent clauses. Conjunctions (for, and, nor, but, or, and yet, so) join these independent clauses. The conjunction can impact the meaning of the sentence.

Sample Compound Sentences My husband was working, so I went shopping . I like chocolate ice cream but don't have it very often . They wanted to go to Italy, for they wanted to see Venice . I am on a diet yet still want a cookie . She is a good administrator, and everybody knows that.

Complex Sentences A complex sentence is an independent clause joined by one or more dependent clauses. A subordinating conjunction begins the dependent clauses. A dependent clause that begins a sentence must be followed by comma. A dependent clause has a subject and a verb, but it does not make sense on its own.

Subordinating Conjunctions After how Until Although if Unless As in as much   as if in order that When as long as At least Whenever as much as now that whereas soon wherever as though Since While because so that Before even if That even though   though

Sample Complex Sentences Everybody knows that she is a good administrator . I am glad that you are joining our company. Stay in the bath until the phone rings. Leave while you can . The human brain never stops working until you stand up to speak in public.

Compound-Complex Sentences A compound-complex sentence is a sentence that has at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent clause. The dependent clause is introduced by either a subordinate conjunction (until, when, while, because ) or a relative pronoun (that, which , who ) .

Sample- Compound-Complex Sentence . Although I like to go camping, I haven't had the time to go lately, and I haven't found anyone to go with . independent clause: "I haven't had the time to go lately“ independent clause: "I haven't found anyone to go with“ dependent clause: "Although I like to go camping... "

Test Yourself – Simple, Compound, Complex, or Compound-Complex? 1. The teacher walked into the classroom, greeted the students, and took attendance. 2. Peter played football while Jane went shopping. 3. jack played football, yet Jim went shopping. 4. Although Mexico has a better team, they lost the tournament, and their more aggressive style did not pay off. 5. Because I am an English teacher, some people expect me to speak perfectly, and other people expect me to write perfectly. 6. We decided that the movie was too violent, but our children, who like to watch scary movies, thought that we were wrong.

Sentence by function The sentences are of four types. Assertive or declarative sentence Interrogative: Imperative: Exclamatory sentence:

Assertive sentences : Those which make statements or assertion; as A declarative sentence tells something. It ends with a period . e.g. My friend loves to write and explores English language .

Sample – Assertive sentences Jan is a student. She lives in a big city. She is a good student . jack  was a great leader. India is a Very Vast country. The principal did not punish him.  

Imperative sentence A sentence that expresses a command or an entreaty e.g., Be quiet. An imperative sentence gives an order. It ends with a period OR an exclamation point.

Sample – imperative sentences Do Not Enter ! Please be quiet in the library. Let’s eat . Come with me . Be nice ! Help me!

Interrogative sentence : Those which ask questions; as Where do you live? An interrogative sentence asks a question. It ends with a question mark.

Interrogative sentence There are 4 types of Interrogative. Yes /No interrogatives Alternative interrogatives. Wh-interrogatives Tag questions.

Here are some examples- interrogative sentences: Did you go to the game Friday night? Should I call or email you? What are you doing? You live in the city, don’t you?

Exclamatory sentence: A sentence that expresses a strong feeling is called exclamatory sentence. e.g., How cold the night is! What a shame! An exclamatory sentence ends with an exclamation point. ( ! )

Sample -Exclamatory sentences No, you did not have permission to stay out this late ! I can’t figure this out ! Our team won the championship ! I don’t know what happened here ! I simply adore you ! How a brave man !