Classical Civilization: India 4 Classical Civilization: India

Chapter Overview The Framework for Indian History: Geography and Culture Patterns in Classical India Political Institutions Religion and Culture Economy and Society Indian Influence and Comparative Features

FIGURE 4.1 The cave temples carved out of solid stone at Ajanta in central India provide dramatic evidence of the religious fervor that swept through south Asia in the age of the Buddha and the Hindu revival. FIGURE 4.1 The cave temples carved out of solid stone at Ajanta in central India provide dramatic evidence of the religious fervor that swept through south Asia in the age of the Buddha and the Hindu revival.

TIMELINE 1600 B.C.E.–1 C.E. TIMELINE 1600 B.C.E.–1 C.E.

The Framework for Indian History: Geography and a Formative Period Period of Aryan Incursions Buddhists and brahmans shape society Gupta dynasty emerges Peak of artistic, intellectual achievement Distinct from Chinese developments

The Framework for Indian History: Geography and Culture Formative Influences Open to influences from the Middle East Alexander the Great Geography Himalayas Isolating, but passable Mountainous northern areas Deccan Semitropical climate Monsoon rains

The Framework for Indian History: Geography and Culture Brahman Culture Aryans Indo-European pastoralists Into Asia Minor, Europe, Iran from 2000s B.C.E. Social Classes (varnas) Untouchables

The Framework for Indian History: Geography and Culture Brahman Culture Sanskrit epics of the Vedic Age Rig-Veda 1028 hymns Indra Epic Age, 1000–600 B.C.E. The Upanishads Ritual and mysticism in religion

Patterns in Classical India End of formative era, c.600 B.C.E. From c. 600 to c. 300 B.C.E. plains divided among rulers Sixteen major states 327 B.C.E., Alexander the Great

Patterns in Classical India The Mauryan Dynasty Chandragupta Maurya, 322 B.C.E. Autocratic rule Ashoka (269–232 B.C.E.) Grandson of Chandragupta Conversion to Buddhism; belief in dharma Becomes pacific, vegetarian Infrastructure: roads, hospitals, inns Opposed by Brahmans Kushans follow end of Mauryan rule

Map 4.1 India at the Time of Ashoka Although, as the map shows, the Mauryan monarchs claimed to rule most of present-day South Asia, much of the subcontinent was only loosely controlled. Map 4.1 India at the Time of Ashoka Although, as the map shows, the Mauryan monarchs claimed to rule most of present-day South Asia, much of the subcontinent was only loosely controlled.

FIGURE 4.2 Two of the four lions that originally sat atop the Ashoka column at Sarnath, in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India (this view of the sculpture obscures the other two lions). This sculpture, now housed at the Sarnath Museum, was carved from a single sandstone block. Ashoka used the lions as the emblem of his rule. FIGURE 4.2 Two of the four lions that originally sat atop the Ashoka column at Sarnath, in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India (this view of the sculpture obscures the other two lions). This sculpture, now housed at the Sarnath Museum, was carved from a single sandstone block. Ashoka used the lions as the emblem of his rule.

Map 4.2 The Gupta Empire Not only was the territory claimed by the Gupta dynasty a good deal smaller than the empire of their Mauryan predecessors, even the area controlled was ruled to a far greater extent by local lords than the Gupta emperors. Map 4.2 The Gupta Empire Not only was the territory claimed by the Gupta dynasty a good deal smaller than the empire of their Mauryan predecessors, even the area controlled was ruled to a far greater extent by local lords than the Gupta emperors.

Patterns in Classical India The Guptas Collapse of Kushan state by 220 C.E. Autocratic rule Guptas From 320 C.E. Long period of stable rule Overthrown by Huns in 535 C.E.

Political Institutions Consistent tradition of regionalism Attempts to hold large areas Mauryan rulers rely on armies Guptas create taxation system, claim divine sanction In general simple political culture Kautilya is an exception Chandragupta's chief minister Treatise on politics

Political Institutions Social organization Caste system becomes more rigid Yet social mobility existed Rulers could rise from lower castes No slavery

Religion and Culture The Formation of Hinduism Origins in Vedic and Epic Eras No single founder, develops gradually Fluid, adaptable Brahmans Develop abstract aspects of gods Upanishads Tension between ritual and spirituality Brahmans versus gurus

Religion and Culture Hinduism Mystics (gurus) Brahma, holy essence Aspects of brahma as gods Vishnu Shiva

Religion and Culture Hinduism Different paths for a good life Dharma Yoga Brahmans' ritual Personal devotion Dharma Moral law Not prescriptive

FIGURE 4.3 Perhaps the most frequently depicted Indian religious image is the god Shiva as the celestial dancer, here portrayed in a south Indian bronze. The position of the god's hands and the objects held in them each represent a different aspect of his power, which may be simultaneously creative and destructive. His left hand closest to his head, for example, is held in the posture of reassurance, and the left hand furthest away holds a drum, which signifies time. His left foot crushes the demon of ignorance, which seems to want to be destroyed by the illustrious god. FIGURE 4.3 Perhaps the most frequently depicted Indian religious image is the god Shiva as the celestial dancer, here portrayed in a south Indian bronze. The position of the god's hands and the objects held in them each represent a different aspect of his power, which may be simultaneously creative and destructive. His left hand closest to his head, for example, is held in the posture of reassurance, and the left hand furthest away holds a drum, which signifies time. His left foot crushes the demon of ignorance, which seems to want to be destroyed by the illustrious god.

Religion and Culture Buddhism Siddhartha Gautama, born c. 563 B.C.E. Takes to wandering life, asceticism Four Noble Truths Escape suffering by renouncing worldly things Achievement of nirvana

Religion and Culture Buddhism Spread through work of monks Conversion of Ashoka Opposed by brahmans Aspects of human life Laws of love in Kamasutra

Map 4. 3 The Spread of Buddhism in Asia, 400 B. C. E. –600 C. E Map 4.3 The Spread of Buddhism in Asia, 400 B.C.E.–600 C.E. In less than two centuries wandering missionaries had carried the Buddhist faith from central Asia to Sri Lanka and into China and Japan. Map 4.3 The Spread of Buddhism in Asia, 400 B.C.E.–600 C.E. In less than two centuries wandering missionaries had carried the Buddhist faith from central Asia to Sri Lanka and into China and Japan.

Religion and Culture Arts and Sciences Literature Strong traditions of storytelling Drama University center under Guptas Some borrowing from Greeks Aryabhatta Length of solar year

FIGURE 4. 4 The great Buddhist stupa at Sanchi in central India FIGURE 4.4 The great Buddhist stupa at Sanchi in central India. Stupas were built to house relics of the Buddha, and they became major sites of pilgrimage. The intricate carved gates and railing surrounding the stupa related incidents from the Buddha's life or displayed symbols associated with his teachings. The great dome that covered the dirt mound that formed the core of the stupa often was painted white, and it struck approaching pilgrims as a great cloud floating on the horizon. FIGURE 4.4 The great Buddhist stupa at Sanchi in central India. Stupas were built to house relics of the Buddha, and they became major sites of pilgrimage. The intricate carved gates and railing surrounding the stupa related incidents from the Buddha's life or displayed symbols associated with his teachings. The great dome that covered the dirt mound that formed the core of the stupa often was painted white, and it struck approaching pilgrims as a great cloud floating on the horizon.

Religion and Culture Arts and Sciences Mathematics Architecture Originated "Arabic" system, including zero Negative numbers, square roots Architecture Stupas Lively murals

Economy and Society Society Caste system influences many aspects of life Status of women diminishes However, stress on loving relationships Children indulged in early years

Economy and Society Economy Strong manufacturing Trade Textiles Steel Guilds, selling from shops Trade Greater status than in China Trade with East Asia, Middle East, Roman Empire, Southeast Asia

Indian Influence and Comparative Features Indian Ocean a hub for contacts Buddhism carried to China Influence on Greeks and Romans

Inequality as a Social Norm Caste system as an organization that contradicts Western beliefs Concept of equality Social place not determined by birth Opportunity to rise in status Equality would have been incomprehensible in the classical age. "Rags-to-riches" uncommon Few challenged this way of life.

Indian Influence and Comparative Features China and India Compared Chinese restraint versus Indian sensuality Sciences Chinese prefer the practical Indians interested in mathematics Popular worldviews Hindu peasants had more local control Indian merchants more important

Map 4. 4 Eurasian and African Trading Goods Routes, c. 300 B. C. E Map 4.4 Eurasian and African Trading Goods Routes, c. 300 B.C.E. to 300 C.E. As the map above illustrates, a vibrant oceanic trading system was in place across the Afro-Eurasian continents by the last centuries B.C.E., and the Indian subcontinent was central as a producer and consumer in this vast network of contact and exchange. Map 4.4 Eurasian and African Trading Goods Routes, c. 300 B.C.E. to 300 C.E. As the map above illustrates, a vibrant oceanic trading system was in place across the Afro-Eurasian continents by the last centuries B.C.E., and the Indian subcontinent was central as a producer and consumer in this vast network of contact and exchange.