Chapter 11: The Americas on the Eve of Invasion

Story Time p. 136 “The Americas” Take Notes -

The First Americans The first Americans migrated to North America from Asia during the Late Ice Age by crossing the Bering Land Bridge, over what is now the Bering Strait When polar ice caps melted around 10,000 BC, the Bering Land Bridge was submerged, isolating the Americas from the rest of the world This left the people there to develop their own cultures

The First Americans Some of the first Americans traveled south along the west coast of North America by boat. When an ice-free corridor opened along the Rocky Mountains, they could also travel on foot south and migrate into South America

Central America The Central Americans were primarily hunter-gatherers until they could support settled villages with domesticated crops They mainly relied on native root plants for their agriculture, such as sweet potatoes, yams, and manioc Later they obtained maize (corn) from Mexico which was a better, more reliable food able to help them sustain permanent settlements A better food supply (including maize and other crops) allowed the Central Americans to form more complex civilizations such as villages, city-states, and eventually empires

Central America The most advanced agriculture techniques developed in the Mayan region and Mexico There was very fertile land which led to food surpluses, which then allowed a larger population, which resulted in more complex social structures Different villages throughout Mexico and Central America traded goods and exchanged ideas with each other The mixing of ideas and cultures formed the foundation for the rise of greater civilizations

Story Time p. 137 “Early Civilizations of Mexico” Take Notes: -

The Americas on the Eve of Invasion By the 1500s the Americas were densely populated They had developed independently from other major centers of world history The Americas had many different peoples and a huge variety of cultures and ways of life The peoples of Central and South America (Mayans, Toltecs, Aztecs, Incas, etc.) were called Indians because of Christopher Columbus who was mistaken and thought he had sailed to the Indies Native Americans are still sometimes referred to as Indians today

Story Time p. 138 “Mayan Civilization” Take Notes: -

Story Time p.138 “The Toltecs” Take Notes -

Post classic Mesoamerica (1000-1500 CE) Toltec beginnings Defeat of the Teotihuacan in lake Texcoco A sedentary, agrarian, militaristic society Large empire whose influence expands beyond central Mexico, as far as Guatemala Legend of Topiltzin/Quetzalcoatl and influence in Yucatan Heavily militaristic (sacrifice & war) Capital in Tula in 968 Collapsed in 1150 probably caused by northern nomads

Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl

Story Time p. 139 “The Aztecs” Take Notes -

The Aztec Rise to Power After Toltecs, political power and people move to shores along lakes in Mexico valley Lakes provide: fishing; farming; transportation Early 13th c: Aztecs migrate to shores Many vie for control of lakes: winners are Aztecs Speak Nahuatl (Toltec language); lends legitimacy to rule 1325: Aztecs found Tenochtitlan, on island in center of Lake Texcoco 1434: Aztecs dominate central valley and begin to conquer other city-states Central valley inhabited by mixture of people dominated by powerful tribes organized into city-states Establish a tribute empire: prisoners used for human sacrifices

Aztec Culture Collection of stratified clans united under one ruler (clans dictate social status) Ruler Moctezuma II Head of state/religion Representative of the gods Nobles Peasants Slaves (war captives) Distinctive ideas about science, the earth, and the universe Had laws, boundaries, a marketplace near the palace City states politically and physically Organized for war and motivated by religious zeal Latoque- a council to elect the successor Advanced agriculture and crafts- chinampas

Aztec Religion Spiritual and natural world seamless Hundreds of deities (3 Groups: fertility, agriculture, water/rain) Pay tribute to gods through festivals, ceremonies, feasting, dancing, warfare, and sacrifice Sacrifices increased Huitzilopochtli (deity of war, sun, and human sacrifice) needs strength Patron of Tenochtitlan Motivated by religious conviction? Or terror and political control? Includes ritual cannibalism War captives supply Aztecs with sacrificial victims

Economy Agrarian community Chinampas: man made floating islands that yielded large amount of crops, constructed to provide additional farming land Farming organized by clans; maize and beans No use of wheel or laboring animals Many slaves obtained from conquered lands A special merchant class: pochteca Taxes, cocoa beans and gold dust as money Vibrant daily markets were highly regulated by the state

Aztec Society in Transition Society became more hierarchical as the empire grew. Social classes with different functions began to develop, with the original system of calpulli’s remained. Suffered some problems in maintaining a large population with the limited technological knowledge they knew of the time. Extra hours spent working in the fields and preparing food. Transportation a struggle without the knowledge of the wheel.

Gender & Technology Aztec Women Helped in fields, raised children and cooked, weaved silk, training young girls role of a women. Unlike most women in other societies of that time, women could inherit property and pass to heirs. However, little political and social rights Arranged marriages Elite use polygamy, commoners are monogamous Technological difference in Mesoamerica than Mediterranean No knowledge of wheel or animals. 30-40 hours more work preparing food Grind corn by hand on stone boards

Story Time p. 139 “Early Peoples of Peru” Take Notes -

Inca Expansion The Incas Chimor Kingdom (900-1465) Control of north coast of Peru Incas conquer Chimors by taking over irrigation system Inca Empire (Twantinsuyu) Quechua-speaking clans (ayllus) in southern Andes By 1350, they live in and around Cuzco (capital) Control regions by 1438, under Pachacuti (ruler, or inca) Centered around Lake Titicaca Aggressive expansion for 60 years by Pachacuti, his son, and grandson Inca Expansion

Story Time p. 140 “The Incan Empire” Take Notes: -

Techniques of Inca Imperial Rule Highly centralized Inca ruler; governors of four provinces; bureaucracy Local rulers maintain their positions Integrated various ethnic groups into an tribute empire (supply labor on government land) Quechua is spread as language to unite empire Military: System of roads, way stations (tambos), storehouses Extensive irrigated agriculture; large building and irrigation projects “Split inheritance” necessitates conquest Power goes to eldest male; wealth and land to other sons

Inca Culture Viracocha (creator/sun god) is highest Temple of the Sun at Cuzco, center of state religion Local gods survive Cult of ancestors, deceased rulers mummified Animism (mountains, stones, rivers, caves); considered holy shrines (huacas)

Inca Cultural Achievements They made really pretty pottery Incas Metal work was the most advanced in the Americas at the time Gold, silver, copper, bronze Monumental architecture (steep slopes) Farming: potato; maize Tools/weapons No real ”Writing system” they knotted strings which was Quipu Used to record census and financial info The Incas smarts truly showed in these areas land and water managements extensive road system architecture and public buildings

Comparing Incas and Aztecs Similarities Built on earlier empires that preceded them Aztecs = Toltecs Inca = Chimor Both empires were based on intensive agriculture under state control Animistic religion Clans transformed to hierarchy Ethic groups allowed to survive However, Inca incorporate them into empire, while Aztecs rule them harshly Nobles were the personnel of the state Excellent organizers (imperial, military) Recognized local ethnic groups and political leaders and allowed all those who worshipped anyone and what not Differences Aztecs have sophisticated trade, markets; Inca have no separate merchant class Aztecs developed a system of writing, while the Inca did not

Major Linguistic Groups in North America Peoples of the Americas Major Linguistic Groups in North America Great variety; adapt to their region Some use irrigation No states formed Long distance/regional trade Caribbean islands: hierarchical societies, divided into chiefdoms Strongly resembled Polynesian societies North America 1500: 200 languages Agriculturalists; nomads Two great imperial systems by 1500, but Mesoamerica and the Andes weakened by European contact Communities are technologically behind Europeans, Chinese, Arabs

How Many People? The estimation of Indians were grossly exaggerated by Europeans The best estimate of the population in the America, however, is between 57-72 million people in 1500 Most historians agree that Mesoamerica and the Andes has the largest populations There was also a significant drop in population due to disease from Europeans and Spanish immigrants

Differing Cultural Patterns Much variation with Indian Cultures Most indian societies were strongly kin based Exceptions of the state system of Mesoamerica and Andes Ranking was not based on wealth Woman were subordinate, but in some societies held important political and social roles Indians view self as part of the ecological system Different to many European and Asian civilizations

American Diversity in World Context At the end of the 15th century, the Aztec and Inca empires dominate in centers of Mesoamerica and the Andes Both built on achievements of predecessors, militaristic, and weakened by internal strains along with limited by technological inferiority The first Europeans were shocked by the tribes people and their wealth The Americas lacked many key technologies The wheel, large domesticated animal, the plow, many metal tools, and written languages The Americas isolation came to an end in 1492

The Americas and The World Because the Americas were isolated from any global connections with other civilizations, they did not gain certain technologies such as the wheel, ironworking, or a variety in domesticated animals/livestock They were also unaffected by any of the major world religions Even without influence from outside cultures, the Native Americans made many of their own achievements including an accurate calendar and intricate wood and stone working The Native Americans’ lack of connections with other world civilizations became a problem, though, when the Americas were forced into new global contact

Story Time p. 142 “North America” Take Notes -

Let’s Practice What form of government was the basis for the imperial structure of the Aztecs during their first settlement in the valley of Mexico? Regional kingdoms Hunting and gathering Monarchy controlling a large territory Chiefdoms based on shifting agriculture City-states

Let’s Practice What form of government was the basis for the imperial structure of the Aztecs during their first settlement in the valley of Mexico? Regional kingdoms Hunting and gathering Monarchy controlling a large territory Chiefdoms based on shifting agriculture City-states

Let’s Practice Which of the following views can be associated with the concept of “Inca socialism”? The Inca Empire was based on a republican form of government that offered political rights to laborers The Inca nobility was taxed by the imperial government to support the poorer members of Inca society There was no central authority, and the Inca people all worked together to meet their economic needs The Inca Empire was dominated by a strong merchant class that managed the economy for the mutual benefit of all classes The Inca Empire was a carefully organized system in which every community collectively contributed to the whole and the state regulated the distribution of resources on the basis of need.

Let’s Practice Which of the following views can be associated with the concept of “Inca socialism”? The Inca Empire was based on a republican form of government that offered political rights to laborers The Inca nobility was taxed by the imperial government to support the poorer members of Inca society There was no central authority, and the Inca people all worked together to meet their economic needs The Inca Empire was dominated by a strong merchant class that managed the economy for the mutual benefit of all classes The Inca Empire was a carefully organized system in which every community collectively contributed to the whole and the state regulated the distribution of resources on the basis of need.