385L17

BRONZE AGE 3000-1100 BCE Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations DARK AGE 1100-800 BCE economic collapse migration into Aegean ARCHAIC PERIOD 800-480 BCE trade and economic renewal literacy rise of polis Presocratic speculation CLASSICAL PERIOD 480-323 BCE Athenian supremacy scientific advances: logic, astronomy, medicine, physics, mathematics, biology… research institutes (Academy, Lyceum) HELLENISTIC PERIOD 323-31 BCE Alexander the Great syncretism research libraries (Alexandria, Pergamon) ROMAN REPUBLIC 509-31 BCE Roman conquest of Greece (150) expansion of Empire ROMAN EMPIRE 31 BCE — 476 CE collapse of Republic imperial rule religious cults “fall” of Rome

Aristotelian (384-322 BCE) Contributions • dissection (autopsia) of animals • comparative anatomy of animals • extensive biological writings • teleological approach : function determines form • cardiocentric view of consciousness • emphasis on pneumatic view of physiology • tradition of scientific research in Peripetatic School

Alexandrian Museum and Library • Alexandria founded 331 BCE • state patronage of arts and sciences under Ptolemaic rulers • Museum and Library founded early 3rd century BCE • competition between Alexandria and Pergamum • estimates range from 40,000-400,000 scrolls • Museum as research institute: physics, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, zoology, medicine • ban on dissection of human cadavers lifted • likelihood of vivisection on condemned criminals • ban reinstated by end of 3rd century BCE • library partially destroyed 48 BCE; also 270s CE

Alexandrian Medical Research • Praxagoras, Herophilus, Erasistratus • shift from study of disease to study of health (hygieia) • development of diagnostic procedures (semiology) • human dissection (autopsia) to uncover anatomical structures • anatomical discoveries drive physiological theory • cross-influence of theoretical frameworks

Praxagoras (325-275 BCE) • cardiocentrism (cf. Aristotle) • distinction between veins (blood) and arteries (pneuma) • tendons and nerves (neura) arise from terminus of arteries • development of complex humoral pathology: (a) balance/imbalance among 11 distinct humors (b) excess  sepsis (c) flow of pneuma obstructed by phlegm • increased emphasis on phlebotomy to reduce plethora

325-275 Praxagoras (*) Physics, Anatomy, On Diseases, On Differences in Acute Diseases, On Concurrent Signs, On Supervening Signs, Ways of Therapy, Causes, Affections and Therapies 335-280 Herophilos (*) On Anatomy, On Pulses, Midwifery, Against Common Opinions, Regimen, On the Eyes, Hippokratic Exegesis 304-250 Erasistratos (*) On General Principles of Physiology, Fevers, Expectoration of Blood, Paralysis, Podagra, The Abdominal Cavity, Divisions

Herophilos (335-280 BCE) • rejection of cardiocentrism • focus on anatomically-based definition of health (hygieia) • identification of (a) nerves (neura) — pneuma psykhikon (b) arteries — pneuma zôtikon (c) veins — blood • source of neura traced to spinal cord and cerebellum (a) description of optic, oculomotor, trigeminal, facial, acoustic, hypoglossal nerves (b) description of cerebral ventricles

Herophilos (335-280 BCE) motor (proairêtika) (hard tendons and ligaments) neura sensory (aisthêtika) (hollow conduits for pneuma)

Herophilos (335-280 BCE) • veins (thin) and arteries (thick) distinguished by thickness of membrane (a) veins distribute nutrition (blood) (b) arteries distribute pneuma zôtikon (c) pneuma drawn by expansion of arteries during cardiac systole (d) identification of pulse (sphygmos) as diagnostic tool (e) use of water-clock to time beats

Sphygmatology AGE RHYTHM METRE Childhood uu pyrrhic Adolescence uu— trochee Adulthood —— spondee Senescence u— iamb

DIAGNOSTIC CATEGORIES OF A SINGLE PULSE

Erasistratos (304-250 BCE) • rejection of cardiocentrism • digestion = mechanical grinding • rejection of refrigerant function of pneuma (stomach, lungs, brain) • histological triplokia : plaiting of neura (sensation), arteries (movement), veins (nutrition) together • discovery of unidirectional cardiac valves (a) right ventricular systole  blood through veins (b) left ventricular systole  pneuma through arteries

Erasistratos (304-250 BCE) • rejection of cardiocentrism • digestion = mechanical grinding • histological triplokia : plaiting of neura (sensation), arteries (movement), veins (nutrition) together • discovery of unidirectional cardiac valves (a) right ventricular systole  blood through veins (b) left ventricular systole  pneuma through arteries

Erasistratos (304-250 BCE) • dissection of brain (a) investigation of meninges (b) investigation of ventricles (c) distinction of cerebrum and cerebellum (d) cerebral systole moves pneuma through hollow neura

Erasistratos (304-250 BCE) • series of vacuums (lungs, cardiac and arterial systole and diastole, diaphorêsis) draw pneuma through body • injection of pneuma into muscle causes swelling, empowers movement • venous and arterial vessels terminate in valved capillaries with openings (anastomôses)

paremptôsis • principle of movement along gradients  extravenous fluid transfer (paremptôsis) • overeating  plethora  pressure-driven leakage (paremptôsis) of blood into artery • blood drawn into artery from vein due to vacuum created by escape of pneuma from artery • two categories of diseases: (a) paremptôsis  obstruction of arterial pneuma  fever and inflammation (empyema) (b) paremptôsis  obstruction of neural pneuma  numbness and paralysis • treatment aims to reduce fluid excess through purgatives and allopathic diet