Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration Chapter 17 Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration

Nomadic Economy and Society Rainfall in central Asia too little to support large-scale agriculture Pastoralists-kept herds of animals: horses, sheep, goats, cattle and camels Animal herding Food Clothing Shelter (yurts) Migratory patterns to follow pastureland Frequent movement necessary to keep animals fed Small-scale farming, rudimentary artisanry Few concentrations of people-oases

Nomads in Turkmenistan

Nomadic Economy Trade links between nomadic and settled peoples begin during the classical era Nomads needed agricultural products and manufactured goods from settled societies Nomads engage in long-distance travel Experts on caravan routes-knowledge of vast expanses of central Asian steppe Turkish people especially involved during postclassical period trade

Nomadic Society Governance clan-based Charismatic individuals become nobles, occasionally assert authority Unusually fluid status for nobility Hereditary, but could be lost through incompetence Advancement for meritorious non-nobles

Gender Relations Male dominated, but with more respect afforded to women as compared to permanent agricultural societies Women wielded considerable influence Advisors Cultivators and herders when men were away Combat Skills: Horse Riding and Archery Occasionally regents or rulers

Nomadic Religion Shamans center of pagan worship for Turkish people When trading, Turkish peoples develop interests in and convert to Buddhism, Nestorian Christianity, Islam and Manichaeism from sixth century C.E. Turkish script developed, partially to record religious teachings Over the longer term most Turks converted to Islam (starting in tenth century) due to Abbasid influence First major conversion-Saljuq Turks Ally with Abbasids and eventually control the caliphate

Military Organization Large confederations of nomadic peoples led under a khan Authority extended through tribal elders Exceptionally strong cavalries Mobility Speed

Turkish Empires and Their Neighbors, ca. 1210 C.E.

Saljuq Turks and the Abbasid Empire Eighth to tenth centuries, Turkish peoples on border of Abbasid empire Service in Abbasid armies Eventually came to dominate Abbasid caliphs 1055, caliph recognized Saljuq leader, Tughril Beg as sultan Tughril consolidated his hold on Baghdad, then extended rule to other parts of the empire Abbasid caliphs served as figureheads of authority; real power rested in the hands of the Turkish sultans

Saljuq Turks and the Byzantine Empire 1071, Saljuq Turks defeat Byzantine army at Manzikert, take emperor captive Large-scale invasion of Anatolia Byzantine peasants welcome invasion; view Turks as liberators Many conversions to Islam Instituted policies to curtail influence of Byzantine Church Ottoman Turks conquer Constantinople in 1453

Ghaznavid Turks and the Sultanate of Delhi Mahmud of Ghazni, Afghanistan, invades northern India At first for plunder, later to rule Northern India completely dominated by thirteenth century, Turkish Sultanate of Delhi controls region Persecution of Buddhists, Hindus Turkish conquests prelude to massive empire building campaign of the Mongols

Chinggis Khan (1167-1227) and the Making of the Mongol Empire Temüjin, b. 1167 Father prominent warrior, poisoned ca. 1177, forced into poverty Mastered steppe diplomacy, elimination of enemies Brought all Mongol tribes into one confederation 1206, proclaimed Chinggis Khan (“universal ruler”)

Mongol Political Organization Broke up tribal organization Formed military units from men of different tribes Promoted officials on basis of merit and loyalty Established capital at Karakorum

Mongol Arms Mongol population only one million (less than 1% of Chinese population) Army numbered 100,000-125,000 Strengths: Cavalry Short bows Rewarded enemies who surrendered, cruel to enemies who fought Special accommodations made for those captured who were skilled

Mongol Conquests First unified the Mongol clans Conquered northern China-dominated by the Jurchen Captured Jurchen capital; renamed Khanbaliq-1215 Effectively defeated Jurchen by 1220 Conquest of Afghanistan and Persia Khan attempts to open trade relations with the Khwarazm Shahdom (successor to the Saljuq Turks) in 1218 Representatives of Khan killed Invaded and ravaged lands to prevent future rebellions Large-scale, long-term devastation (qanat system destroyed) Genghis Khan died in 1227

Genghis Khan as Administrator Know for conquering ability, not for ability to govern Ruled through military power, not through a central government Divided conquered territories into regions that were ruled by overlords Overlords took tribute from regions they controlled to support Mongols

The Spread of Mongol Power

The Mongol Empires, ca. 1300 C.E.

Khubilai Khan (r. 1264-1294) Grandson of Chinggis Khan Khanate of the Great Kahn-China Ruthless warrior From Khanbaliq-launched frequent attacks against the Song Dynasty Captured Song capital, Hangzhou in 1276 Established Yuan dynasty in 1279 (to 1368) Religiously tolerant-supported Buddhism Hosted Marco Polo Unsuccessful forays into Vietnam, Cambodia, Burma, Java Two attempted invasions of Japan (1274, 1281) turned back by typhoons (kamikaze: “divine winds”)

The Golden Horde Conquest of Russia, 1237-1241 Established tributary relationship Raids into Poland, Hungary, Germany Drawn to steppe region north of the Black Sea because of pastureland for horses-maintained large military presence there for raids into Russia Not interested in occupying Russia because it was heavily forested Eventually pushed out by alliance of Russian princes from Moscow in the mid-1500s

The Ilkhanate of Persia Hulegu (brother of Kublai Kahn) overthrows Saljuq Turk- dominated Abbasid Caliphate Baghdad sacked, 1258 Caliph executed City looted 200,000 massacred Expansion into Syria checked by Egyptian forces

Mongol Rule in Persia Nomadic conquerors had to learn to rule sedentary societies Inexperienced, lost control of most lands within a century Persia: dependence on existing administration to deliver tax revenues Left matters of governance to bureaucracy Mongols and allies served in highest ranking administrative roles Persian served in lower capacities-did the actual ruling of the ilkhanate Eventually assimilated into Islamic lifestyle Early Mongol leaders observed shamanism; tolerated other faiths as well In 1295 Ilkhan Ghazan converted to Islam; most Mongols in Persia followed Conversion instigated widespread attacks against Christians and Jews

Mongol Rule in China Strove to maintain strict separation from Chinese Intermarriage forbidden Chinese forbidden to study Mongol language Imported administrators from other areas (especially Arabs, Persians) Ended privilege enjoyed by Confucian scholars Ended the Confucian educational and examination system Yet tolerated religious freedoms Allowed construction of: churches, temples and shrines

The Mongols and Buddhism Shamanism remains popular Lamaist school of Buddhism (Tibet) gains strength among Mongols Large element of magic, similar to shamanism Ingratiating attitude to Mongols: khans as incarnations of Buddha Greatly supported in the Khanate of the Great Khan

The Mongols and Western Integration Experience with long-distance trade Protection of traveling merchants Volume of trade across central Asia increases Diplomatic missions and merchants protected the great khan and other khans remained in communication with each other through diplomatic embassies Also dealt with: Korea, Vietnam, India and western Europe Missionary activity increases Sufi Muslims in Central Asia Lamaist Buddhists attract Mongol interest Nestorian Christians in oasis towns in Central Asia and in China Catholics in China as well Mongol resettlement policies Conquered people or allies of Mongols frequently removed from homes and transported to areas of need like Karakorum Needed people with governing experience, skilled labor Indirectly promoted Eurasian integration through putting people of diverse backgrounds in contact with one another

Decline of the Mongol Empire in Persia Overspending, poor tax returns from overburdened peasantry Ilkhan attempts to replace precious metal currency with paper in 1290s Failure, forced to rescind Factional fighting among Mongol leadership Last ilkhan dies without heir in 1335, Mongol rule collapses

Decline of the Yuan Dynasty in China Mongols continue Tang and Song practice of paper currency Do not have enough bullion in reserves to back up paper currency Public loses confidence in paper money, prices rise because of belief in lowered value of money From 1320s, major power struggles Bubonic plague (Black Death) spreads 1330-1340s Spread through lines of trade and communication Begins during 1330s in SW China; spread to SW Asian in Europe by 1340s Kills half or more of infected populations Caused depopulation and labor shortages 1368 Khanbaliq captured by rebel peasants, Mongols flee peasant rebellion

Surviving Mongol Khanates Khanate of Chaghatai in central Asia Continued threat to China Golden Horde in Caucasus and steppes to mid-sixteenth century Continued threat to Russia

Tamerlane the Conqueror (ca. 1336-1405) As the Mongols fell from power, the Turkish people resumed their imperial conquests In the wake of the Mongol states, power vacuums were left in Persia and China Native Ming Dynasty is founded in China Turkish conqueror, Timur moved into Persia Timur the Lame: Tamerlane United Turkish nomads in khanate of Chaghatai Major military campaigns between Persia and Afghanistan Established authority in wealthy cities for tax revenue Attacked and weakened the Golden Horde Attacked India but never incorporated it into empire Planned to invade China but died

Tamerlane’s Empire, ca. 1405 C.E.

Tamerlane’s Heirs Poor organization of governing structure-like Genghis Khan, a conqueror, not a governor Appointed overlords and tribal leaders to administer conquered territories Power struggles among sons and grandsons divide empire Yet heavily influenced several empires: Mughal Safavid Ottoman

The Ottoman Empire Osman, charismatic leader who dominates part of Anatolia Declares independence from Saljuq sultan, 1299 Attacks Byzantine empire Followers known as Osmanlis (Ottomans)

Ottoman Conquests 1350s conquests in the Balkans Local support for Ottoman invasion Peasants unhappy with fragmented, ineffective Byzantine rule Tamerlane defeats Ottoman forces in 1402, but Ottomans recover by 1440s Re-launched efforts and conquering the Byzantine empire

The Capture of Constantinople, 1453 Sultan Mehmed II (“Mehmed the Conqueror”) Mehmed II attacks and captures Constantinople in 1453 Renamed city Istanbul, capital of Ottoman empire Remaining Byzantine empire falls By 1480 the Ottomans controlled all of Greece and the Balkan region