What is rhetoric?

Rhetoric Rhetoric is the art of writing and speaking persuasively. Authors use a variety of tricks and tools to make their message memorable and effective. These are often referred to as techniques, devices, or strategies. In fiction, they are often referred to as literary or narrative techniques, but they all serve the same purpose: to communicate ideas.

important terminology purpose: The ultimate goal of an argument, expressed in an infinitive statement: “To convince the audience that abortion is wrong.” audience: The targeted audience or listeners. context: The situation or occasion that inspired the speech/essay.

important terminology thesis/claim: The basic argument that the writer must support and prove. main point/assertion: A statement that supports the thesis. evidence/support: proof, data, statistics, examples, evidence. commentary: The writer’s reasoning, thoughts, elaboration, analysis, that explains how the evidence supports the main point.

important terms: counter-argument/concession: Acknowledging and refuting an opposing viewpoint. Some phrases that indicate a counterargument: While it is true that . . . Admittedly . . . Even though . . . Some would argue that. . .

Ways to respond to an argument: defend/support: to agree with an argument challenge/refute: to disagree with an argument qualify: Used when an issue is not so “black and white” or absolute. Perhaps you agree in some situations but not in others. This approach requires more finesse, and shows that you have thought deeply about the argument and considered all the variables and contexts.

important terms: appeal: a specific persuasive approach. Aristotle’s rhetorical appeals: (logos, ethos, pathos) An effective appeal takes into account the feelings and beliefs of the audience, as well as aspects of our human nature. Appeals can be very specific: one can appeal to an audience’s sense of fear, compassion, sex, patriotism, injustice, spirituality, guilt, etc.

important terms: types of evidence: empirical: based on observation and experimentation logical: based on reasoning anecdotal: based on personal experiences (somewhat less reliable)

important terms: logic: deductive reasoning: (deductive=decrease) (general to specific) Starts with a general rule, a premise, which we accept as true. Then from that rule, we make a valid conclusion about something more specific. inductive reasoning: (inductive=increase) (specific to general) drawing a general conclusion or theory based on multiple, specific observations or experiments. (crime solving is inductive)

important terms logical fallacies: are mistakes in reasoning.

important terms: persuasive language techniques: Most of the literary techniques we are familiar with can also be used in rhetoric (metaphors, similes, imagery, etc.) Rhetoric has other language techniques too . . .

important terms: analogy: Explaining something by comparing it to something else that is already understood. anecdote: a personal story antithesis: Words, phrases, and ideas in extreme contrast: (light/dark, good/evil, “Since I make the laws, I can also break the laws.”

rhetorical language allusion: a reference to something (can be historical, religious, literary, etc.) anaphora: repeating a word or phrase at the beginning of sentences. (“I have a dream . . .” “We shall fight them . . .” creates a powerful emotional effect. chiasmus: a balanced but opposite sentence construction: “Ask not what your country can do for you . . .” hyperbole: extreme exaggeration understatement: deliberately representing something as smaller or less important than it is, for effect. An ironic emphasis. Saying “We didn’t do so well.” after your team gets clobbered.

important terms: repetition: using any technique more than once. The easiest way for a writer/speaker to emphasize something. Sometimes this is so obvious we forget that it is a powerfully simple technique.