IPv4 Addresses

Internet Protocol: Which version? There are currently two versions of the Internet Protocol in use for the Internet IPv4 (IP Version 4) Specified in 1980/81 (RFC 760, 791) Four byte addresses Universally deployed Problem: Address space almost exhausted IPv6 (IP Version 6) Specification from 1998 (RFC 2460) Significant differences to IPv4, but not fundamental changes 16-byte addresses Problem: Not widely used (yet?)

Slow adoption of IPv6 IPv6 is available since 15 years, and almost all operating systems and routers support it But IPv6 is still a small fraction of the total Internet traffic Measurements at Internet Exchange Point in Amsterdam: IPv6 traffic as a percentage IPv6 traffic (total volume)

Slow adoption of IPv6 IPv6 is available since 15 years, and almost all operating systems and routers support it But IPv6 is still a small fraction of the total Internet traffic Measurements at Internet Exchange Point in Amsterdam: IPv6 traffic as a percentage IPv6 traffic (total volume)

Slow adoption of IPv6 IPv6 is available since 15 years, and almost all operating systems and routers support it But IPv6 is still a small fraction of the total Internet traffic Measurements at Internet Exchange Point in Amsterdam: IPv6 traffic as a percentage IPv6 traffic (total volume)

ECE 461: IPv4 based We use IPv4 throughout in lecture, labs, and assignment IPv6 concepts are discussed in the lecture http://www.ripe.net/ripe/meetings/ripe-57/presentations/Colitti-Global_IPv6_statistics_-_Measuring_the_current_state_of_IPv6_for_ordinary_users_.7gzD.pdf http://www.ripe.net/ripe/meetings/ripe-57/presentations/Colitti-A_strategy_for_IPv6_adoption.Z8ri.pdf

IPv4 Addresses

IPv4 Addresses

IP Addresses An IPv4 address is an address of the Internet Protocol Version 4. When the version is understood from the context we only say “IP address” On the public Internet, an IP address is unique global address of a network interface The IP address is used by hosts and routers for delivery of IP datagrams

Dotted Decimal Notation IPv4 addresses are written using dotted decimal notation: Each byte is identified by a decimal number in the range [0..255], separated by periods (`dots’). Example: 10000000 1100100 00001011 00111100 1st Byte = 128 2nd Byte = 100 3rd Byte = 11 4th Byte = 60 128.100.11.60

Structure of an IP address IP address consists of a network prefix and a host number Network prefix identifies a particular network Host number identifies an interface on the network The delivery of a packet from a sender to the destination proceeds in 2 steps: Use network prefix to deliver packet to the right network Once the network is found, use the host number to deliver packet to the right interface How can you determine the length of the network prefix? network prefix host number

Length of network prefix The length of the network prefix must be provided in addition to the numerical value of the address There are two conventions for indicating the length: Add length of the network prefix to address (“prefix notation”, “slash notation”, “CIDR notation”) Add bitmask of the network prefix in dotted decimal notation (“netmask”) 32 bits network prefix host number Length of network prefix

Notation of IP address Example: Suppose the network prefix is 16 bits long Prefix notation: 128.100.11.60/16 Netmask notation: 128.100.11.60 255.255.0.0

Special IP Addresses IP address of a network Broadcast address Host number is set to all zeros, e.g., 128.100.0.0 Broadcast address Host number is set to all ones, e.g., 128.100.255.255 Broadcast goes to all hosts on the network The address 255.255.255.255 is a broadcast on the local network Convention for default gateway (but not a reserved address): Default gateway has host number set to ‘1’, e.g., 128.100.0.1

Reserved Network Prefixes Loopback interfaces: 127.0.0.0/8 Most systems use 127.0.0.1 as loopback address A host can send a packet to itself by sending it to address 127.0.0.1 Link Local Addresses: 169.254.0.0/16 Also referred to as auto-configuration When a system cannot acquire an IP address, it selects a random address from the range (it tests whether the address is in use) Packets from this address are not forwarded to other networks Private networks:10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, 192.168.0.0/16, 100.64.0.0/10 Private networks are IP networks that are not part of the public Internet IP addresses need to be unique only within the same private network Systems on different private networks can re-use addresses When packets cross between private network and public Internet, IP addresses in header must be modified Complete list is at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserved_IP_addresses

Network Prefix and Address Block The IP address of a network has the host number set to 0: 128.100.0.0 Network address with prefix length is called network prefix: 128.100.0.0/16 or 128.100/16 A network prefix is interpreted as a range of IP addresses: 128.100.0.0/16  128.100.0.0–128.100.255.255 A network prefix is also called address block It provides the range of addresses allowed on the network The shorter the network prefix, the larger the address block

Network prefix length and address block size To set up a network of a given size, one needs to acquire a address block with a sufficient number of addresses Network Prefix # of IP Addresses /32 1 /31 2 /30 4 … … /24 256 /23 512 /22 1,024 /21 2,048 /20 4,096 /16 65,536 /8 16,777,216 /2 1,073,741,824 /1 2,147,483,648

How does one get an IP network address? IANA RIR LIR (ISP) allocates allocates assigns assigns End user End user To get the networks of UofT at ARIN: Enter “University of Toronto”. Click on UNIVER-36 Click on “Related Networks” Internet Assigned Number Authorities (IANA) manages the global IP address space. IANA allocates addresses to Regional Internet Registries (RIR) IANA allocates addresses in /8 address blocks All available blocks have been allocated. The last available address block was assigned in 2011

How does one get an IP network address? IANA RIR LIR (ISP) allocates allocates assigns assigns End user End user RIR allocates addresses to Local Internet Registries (LIR) LIRs are generally Internet Service Providers Block sizes are /20 or larger End users obtain addresses from an RIR or LIR Some countries have National Internet Registries (NIR), which are between the RIR and LIR levels

Regional Internet Registries There are five Regional Internet Registries, each responsible for managing the address space of a large geographic area Address blocks managed by the RIRs are listed at: http://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv4-address-space/ipv4-address-space.xml

Available IPv4 addresses (Sep 2018) RIRs are running low on IP addresses: (one /8 address block ≈16.8 million IP addresses) Current status of remaining IP addresses: (2012) Addresses in RIR Pool (/8s) Approximate number of Addresses APNIC 0.9138 ≈ 15 million RIPENCC 1.1984 ≈ 20 million ARIN 3.3656 ≈ 56 million LACNIC 3.2246 ≈ 54 million AFRINIC 4.1441 ≈ 70 million (Sep 2016) Addresses in RIR Pool (/8s) Approximate number of Addresses APNIC 0.2681 ≈ 4.5 million RIPENCC 0.4544 ≈ 7.6 million ARIN 0.0004 ≈ 6,700 LACNIC 0.1148 ≈ 1.9 million AFRINIC 0.4513 ≈ 7.5 million Source: http://www.potaroo.net/tools/ipv4/index.html

IPv4 address exhaustion The vast majority of IPv4 addresses are used up  IPv4 address exhaustion Adoption of IPv6 is driven by IPv4 exhaustion: Effectively, IPv4 exhaustion has occurred In the past, IPv4 exhaustion has come with dire warnings People have been creative with slowing down IPv4 exhaustion through policies and protocols IPv4 exhaustion will occur gradually, but is increasingly urgent As IPv4 addresses become less available, the use of IPv6 will increase In the past, there was expectation that IPv6 will replace IPv4 What has happened is that IPv4 and IPv6 coexist

Classful IP Addresses When Internet addresses were standardized (early 1980s), the Internet address space was divided up into classes Three classes available for interfaces: Class A: Network prefix is 8 bits long Class B: Network prefix is 16 bits long Class C: Network prefix is 24 bits long Two additional classes: Class D: Used (multicast) group addresses Class E: Reserved for future use

Classful IP Addresses The classes were identified by the bit values of the IP address Class A: IP address starts with “0” Class B: IP address starts with “10” Class C: IP address starts with “110” Class D: IP address starts with “1110” Class E: IP address starts with “11110” The length of the network prefix is implied by the address There is no need to provide the length of the network prefix

Classful IP Addresses

Classful IP Addresses We will learn about multicast addresses later in this course Class E addresses have never been released for use

IP Allocation with Classful IP Addresses Limited flexibility for obtaining a network address: Class C: ≤ 224 - 2 = 254 IP addresses: Class B: ≤ 216 - 2 = 65534 IP addresses Class A: ≤ 224 - 2 = 16,772,214 IP addresses Too few network addresses for large networks 27 = 128 Class A networks 214 = 16,384 Class B networks Flat address space. Routing tables in the backbone Internet need one entry for each network address. Class C networks: up to 221 = 2,097,152 entries By 1993, the lookup time of routing tables had become a bottleneck for Internet performance

Allocation of Classful Addresses

From Classful to Classless In 1993, there was a major shift for interpreting and allocating IP addresses: until 1993: Classful Addresses after 1993: Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)

CIDR - Classless Interdomain Routing CIDR abandons the notion of classes Key Concept: The length of the network prefix of IP addresses can be any value Consequences: Since the length of the network prefix is no longer implied by the address, the size of the network prefix must be provided with an IP address ( CIDR notation) Hierarchical routing aggregation introduces dependency of IP addresses to service provider Need for new lookup algorithms for routing tables

Division of IPv4 address space 00000…00 Class A (231 addresses) 10000…00 Class B (230 addresses) 11000…00 Class C (229 addresses) 11100…00 11110…00 Class D (228 addresses) unused addresses Class E (228 addresses)