* 07/16/96 Mesopotamia *

Geography Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Agricultural Development * 07/16/96 Geography Fertile Crescent Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Agricultural Development Flooding in Sumer Fertile Crescent = Med Sea to the Persian Gulf; modern Iraq Called Mesopotamia = land between the rivers (Greeks) Tigris and Euphrates empty separately into the sea Flooding = annual melting of upland snow leads to rivers flooding and depositing of rich soil 9000 BCE first evidence of agriculture 6000 BCE people settled along rivers 3500 BCE Sumerians settled in the area 3000 BCE canals and irrigation developed (helps lead to organized government) and rudimentary plows Barley major crop – also have wheat Fields left fallow every other year and resources plentiful Irregular Flooding = world is dangerous and controlled by gods who embody the forces of nature - Mythology explains the environment Geography leads to the development of independent city-states Geography also is conducive for cultural diffusion *

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Towns Individual City-States Conflicts Between City-States * 07/16/96 Towns Individual City-States Conflicts Between City-States Government (from the assemblies to the Lugal) 12 large walled city-states (walled – from disputes – independent urban centers) develop in Sumer (first Mesopotamian peoples – est. region) 10,000 to 40,000 people per political unit City states with sun-dried brick homes (created arc and dome with mud too) – little wood or stone to build Conflicts between city-states over water, land, and showing power City-states also traded and cooperated with one another Government developed as assemblies – Lugal takes power which becomes heriditary King-like position within the city-states Powerful religious and political leader Needed someone to make military decisions, control water, public works, justice, and monitor crop surplus *

Walled city-state with water surrounding * 07/16/96 City-state of Ur Walled city-state with water surrounding *

Sumerian City-State

* 07/16/96 The Standard of Ur – Peace Panel From Ur, southern Iraq, about 2600-2400 BC A mysterious object with one of the earliest representations of a Sumerian army This object was found in one of the largest graves in the Royal Cemetery at Ur, lying in the corner of a chamber above the right shoulder of a man. Its original function is not yet understood. Leonard Woolley, the excavator at Ur, imagined that it was carried on a pole as a standard, hence its common name. Another theory suggests that it formed the soundbox of a musical instrument. When found, the original wooden frame for the mosaic of shell, red limestone and lapis lazuli had decayed, and the two main panels had been crushed together by the weight of the soil. The bitumen acting as glue had disintegrated and the end panels were broken. As a result, the present restoration is only a best guess as to how it originally appeared. The 'Peace' panel depicts animals, fish and other goods brought in procession to a banquet. Seated figures, wearing woollen fleeces or fringed skirts, drink to the accompaniment of a musician playing a lyre. Banquet scenes such as this are common on cylinder seals of the period, such as on the seal of the 'Queen' Pu-abi, also in the British Museum. *

* 07/16/96 The main panels are known as 'War' and 'Peace'. 'War' shows one of the earliest representations of a Sumerian army. Chariots, each pulled by four donkeys, trample enemies; infantry with cloaks carry spears; enemy soldiers are killed with axes, others are paraded naked and presented to the king who holds a spear. *

Religion Theories – Gods and Creation Ziggurats * 07/16/96 Religion Theories – Gods and Creation Ziggurats Religion = nature based polytheistic BONDED people!!! (Religion and language tie people of Sumer together) Gods are anthropomorphic = human in form and conduct People feared the gods (flooding) Humans created to work for and entertain gods Priests hereditary position and very powerful Gods and goddesses owned their cities Kingship is DIVINE – agents of the gods Ziggurat = near the temple at the center of the city-state (not sure purpose) – most prominent Temples made of mud-brick Ur has the largest; Babel most famous (mentioned in Christian Bible) Celebrated gods and fertility (ritual prostitution) Only priests and priestesses allowed inside building *

* 07/16/96 This is a ziggurat. They were typically temples built to the gods. They were primarily made out of mud brick, with mud and straw used as morter. Each Sumerian city had a ziggurat or two dedicated to the deity of that city. Uruk had a ziggurat for Inanna/Ishtar and Anu. *

Writing Pictograms – Ideograms - Cuneiform * 07/16/96 Writing Pictograms – Ideograms - Cuneiform First writing done by Sumerians 3500 BCE pictograms on clay tablets (several hundred thousand found) Ideograms develop next – present and idea Cuneiform develops last with 6000 wedge shaped symbols – sound based writing Male scribes recorded information on clay tablets Economic records, traditions, religion Mostly for record keeping *

Education Only boys of wealthy parents received an education Taught reading, writing, and arithmetic Teachers used severe discipline (beating) After twelve years of schooling, students graduated to become prestigious scribes Schools were called Edubbas, or tablet houses (from writing)

Economy Trade Markets Farming Inventions Professions * 07/16/96 Economy Trade Markets Farming Inventions Professions Markets for trade – geographically ideal for cross-continental trading Mark of merchants make regional goods identifiable in other areas Most people farm = basis of economic system (barley, wheat, vegetables, ale) Inventions PLOW = led to greater role of farming for men (physical strength) and women are delegated to the home (patriarchal attitudes increase!) Wheeled vehicle = 3400 BCE – used in travel and plow; also potters wheel Sundial = used to keep time 6 based number system = 60 minutes in hour; 360 degrees in circle Geometry = measure fields and build buildings Metal working = bronze, jewelry (gold, silver, stones show wealth + importance) Many different professions = job specialization People formed guilds in towns Got wood, stone, metal from trade *

Society Social Structure Housing Role of Women / Marriage Culture * 07/16/96 Society Social Structure Housing Role of Women / Marriage Culture Epic of Gilgamesh Society = classes based on wealth and status Nobles, Commoners, Slaves 90 % farmers Landowners = royalty, high officials, priests Merchants and shop keepers (some also owned land) Independent farmers and artisans Slaves (debt based and domestic) – protected some by law codes Housing – sun dried mud brick; close together; varied on income and status WOMEN = lost rights over time (place becomes at home with children) Could own property, trade, and get divorced No children = men can take second wife Arranged marriages allowed Culture = Beauty is IMPORTANT! Jewelry, pottery, statues, music (lyre; harp) *

Epic of Gilgamesh Tablet Hero on quest for immortality * 07/16/96 Epic of Gilgamesh Tablet Hero on quest for immortality All heros must die as well as everyone else Tells us a great deal about Sumerian society *

Invaders Akkadians – Sargon I Amorites – Hammurabi Hittities – Iron * 07/16/96 Invaders Akkadians – Sargon I Amorites – Hammurabi Hittities – Iron Akkadians = Sargon I 2350 BCE first empire Has a professional army to expand his lands After death, his empire crumbles due to volcanoes and civil unrest Semitic people (spoke semitic language) Falls in 2100 BCE – back to warring city-states Amorites = Sumer is in turmoil…so Hammurabi of Babylon takes control – 1792 BCE Developed famous law code Cuniform on stone tablet 282 laws that depend on social status, protect women and children, relate to geography, and involve strict punishments Laws took seriously public official’s duties/most on marriage and family PATRIARCHAL society 1750 BCE dies and weak leadership follows Hittities = Iron 1460 – 1190 BCE Only group smelting iron in 1500 Iron weapons and horse drawn chariots = technological success *

* 07/16/96 Hammurabi’s Code This stela depicts Hammurabi of Babylon receiving the code of laws from Shamash (the sun god) *