Early Societies in South Asia Chapter 4 Early Societies in South Asia

Harappan society and its neighbors, ca. 2000 B.C.E.

Foundations of Harappan Society The Indus River Silt-enriched water from mountain ranges Major society built by Dravidian peoples, 3000-2500 BCE Cultivation of cotton before 5000 BCE, early cultivation of poultry Decline after 1900 BCE Major cities: Harrapa (Punjab region and Mohenjo- Daro (mouth of Indus River) 70 smaller sites excavated (total 1,500)

Mohenjo-Daro Ruins Population c. 40,000 Regional center Layout, architecture suggests public purpose Broad streets, citadel, pool, sewage Standardized weights evident throughout region Specialized labor Trade

Harapan Society and Culture Evidence of social stratification Dwelling size, decoration Harappan Civilization: matriarchal? Influence on later Indian culture Goddesses of fertility Possible east/west distinctions

Mysterious End of Harappan Civilization Reasons for disappearance unclear Excessive deforestation, loss of topsoil Earthquakes? Flooding? Evidence of unburied dead Disappearance by 1500 BCE

The Aryan “Invasion” Aryans, lighter-skinned invaders from the north Dravidians, darker-skinned sedentary inhabitants of Harappa Color Bias Socio-Economic Implications Difficulty of theory: no evidence of large-scale military conquest

The Early Aryans Sanskrit: sacred tongue Pastoral economy: sheep, goats, horses, cattle Vegetarianism not widespread until many centuries later Religious and Literary works: The Vedas Sanskrit: sacred tongue Prakrit: everyday language, evolved into Hindi, Urdu, Bengali Four Vedas, most important Rig Veda 1,028 hymms to gods

The Vedic Age Conflicts between Aryans and indigenous dasas (“enemies,” “subjects”) Aryans fighting Dravidians Also Aryans fighting each other Chiefdoms: Rajas Early concentration in Punjab, migrations further south Development of iron metallurgy Increasing reliance on agriculture Tribal connections evolve into political structures

Varna: The Caste System Origins in Aryan domination of Dravidians Brahmin, Priest Kshatriya, Warrior Vaishya, Merchant Sudra, Commoner Harijan: “Untouchables; Pariahs” Jati subsystem of castes Related to urbanization, increasing social and economic complexity

Brahmins from Bengal

Patriarchy in Ancient Indian Society “rule of the father” Enforced in the The Lawbook of Manu Overwhelmed Harappan matriarchy? Caste, Jati, inheritance through male line

Sati (“Suttee”)

Aryan Religion Major deity of Rig Veda: Indra, war god Elaborate ritual sacrifices to gods Role of Brahmins important C. 800 BCE some movement away from sacrificial cults Mystical thought, influenced by Dravidians

Teachings of the Upanishads Texts that represent blending of Aryan and Dravidian traditions Composed 800-400 BCE, some later collections until 13th century CE Brahman: the Universal Soul Samsara: reincarnation Karma: accounting for incarnations Moksha: mystical ecstacy Relationship to system of Varna