PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Fundamental biological processes for making and using energy Photosynthesis: process by which plants convert radiant energy to chemical energy Respiration: process by which glucose molecules are broken down and stored energy is released Photosynthesis - autotrophs make glucose Respiration – organisms break down glucose

TYPES OF ORGANISMS BY ENERGY PRODUCTION Autotrophs organisms that produce organic molecules from inorganic substances (photosynthesis) - Photoautotrophs- use light energy to make food (plants, algae, cyanobacteria) - Chemiautotrophs- oxidize inorganic chemicals to drive food making reactions (bacteria, fungi) Heterotrophs - organisms that obtain energy from other organisms (heterotrophs or autotrophs) - do not make own food

Location of photosynthesis Chloroplast- double membrane organelle Thylakoid discs (photosystem: 200-300 thylakoids) - Harvest sunlight - Contains chlorophyll and accessory pigments - Photosystem I and II are linked structurally and functionally Grana (stacks of thylakoid discs) location of light reactions Stroma (protein rich solution, outside grana) location of Calvin Cycle Mesophyll: location of chloroplasts Stomata: pores in leaf CO2 enters/ O2 exits Chlorophyll: pigiment in thylakoids

6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy  C6H12O6 + 6 O2 PHOTOSYNTHESIS 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy  C6H12O6 + 6 O2 process whereby autotrophs (plants) take in light energy and convert it to chemical energy (sugar) Redox Reactions water is split  e- transferred with H+ to CO2  sugar biochemical pathway- series of linked redox reactions where product of one reaction is consumed by the next reaction Endergonic- absorbs solar energy Exergonic- releases energy for organism

Tracking Atoms through Photosynthesis Evidence that chloroplasts split water molecules enabled researchers to track atoms through photosynthesis (C.B. van Niel) Reactants: Products: 6 CO2 12 H2O C6H12O6 6 H2O 6 O2 6 CO2

Photosynthesis = Light Reactions + Calvin Cycle “photo” “synthesis” energy building sugar building reactions reactions

Light Energy and Pigments Comes from radiation (energy that travels in waves) from the sun photon- particles which have energy wavelength- crest to crest of wave sunlight- mixture of all visible wavelengths white light- all wavelengths reflected equally so looks white visible spectrum- all colors of white light

graph plotting pigment light absorption vs wavelength Pigment: substance that absorbs light - photosynthesis: absorbed light energy is used to make chemical bond energy - wavelengths not absorbed are reflected (color we see) Absorption spectrum graph plotting pigment light absorption vs wavelength representation of how well particular pigment absorbs different wavelengths of white light

Photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a (blue green) - primary photosynthetic pigment - directly involved in converting light  chemical energy - hides other pigments chlorophyll b (yellow green) - accessory pigment - absorbs light and transfers energy to chlorophyll a carotenoids (orange, yellow) - xanthophylls (yellow) / carotenes (orange) - accessory pigments - converts energy to chloro. a - seen in autumn when chloro. breaks down - photoprotection for chlorophyll anthocyanin (red, purple, blue): antioxidants - non photosynthetic parts of plant (flowers/fruits) - absorb different pigments so we see other colors

Determining Absorption Spectrum

Action Spectrum Action spectrum plots rate of photosynthesis of different wavelengths, i.e. CO2 consumption , O2 release (different than absorption spectrum) Englemann’s experiment: Used alga and bacteria Measured O2 output Result: violet-blue and red wavelengths caused most photosynthesis

* *Move from ground state to excited state** Electron Excitement light is made of photons (particles which carry fixed amount of energy) when light strikes chlorophyll , some of its atoms absorb the photons energy is transferred to the atoms electrons and excites them to jump to next level * *Move from ground state to excited state** - excess energy is released as light or heat

Photosystems Photosystem: reaction center (proteins that hold special pair of chlorophyll a molecules) + light harvesting complexes (cloro. a & b, carotenoids bound to proteins) - located in thylakoid discs - absorb light energy Primary electron acceptor: accepts electrons and becomes reduced (electrons move to higher energy level) Photosystem I: chlorophyll a absorbs at 700 nm- far red (p700) Photosystem II: chlorophyll a absorbs at 680 nm- red (p680)

Overview of Stages of Photosynthesis 2 Stage Process light reactions (needs light) - occurs in thylakoid membranes 4 basic steps - sun’s energy is trapped by chlorophyll - electron transport (linear/cyclical) - water is split and oxygen is released (O2 production) - ATP and NADPH are formed and released into stroma - purpose: to make ATP and NADPH (energy carrier molecule)

Calvin Cycle: - occurs after light reactions - can occur in light or dark 3 basic steps - carbon fixation to glucose - reduction of NADP to NADPH - regeneration of RuBP to start cycle over again

Light Reactions Electron Flow Two routes for electron flow: A. Linear (non-cyclic) electron flow B. Cyclic electron flow

STEPS OF LIGHT REACTION 1. photosystem II absorbs light and excites electrons of chlorophyll a - molecules and electrons are forced to higher energy level (reaction center) ***purpose of photosystem II is to generate ATP and supply electrons to photosystem I *** 2. excited electrons leave chlorophyll a molecule (oxidation reaction)

NON-CYCLICAL PHOTOPHOYPHORYLATION primary electron acceptor sends electrons into ETC - reduction reaction - chain uses energy of electrons to make ATP - water is split (photolysis) and O2 is released into atmosphere - electrons from water replace those lost in Photosystem II - pumps H+ ions (from splitting of water) to interior of grana (lumen) - inside grana , there is a high concentration (proton gradient) of H+ ions - chemiosmosis occurs (making of ATP) - H+ ions back move across grana membranes (ATPsynthase) LINEAR ELECTRON FLOW NON-CYCLICAL PHOTOPHOYPHORYLATION

NON-CYCLICAL PHOTOPHOYPHORYLATION at end of ETC, electrons are passed to photosystem I thru the (cytochrome complex = plastiquinone Pq (e- carrier) and plastocyanin Pc (protein) - photosystem also absorbs light to excite electrons in chloro. A - electrons go thru separate electron transport chain in photosystem I to a different primary electron acceptor ferradoxin Fd (protein) facilitates movement of e- - purpose of photosystem I is to generate NADPH 5. NADP+ - accepts electrons and H+ ions (reduces it to NADPH) - NADPH and ATP move into stroma LINEAR ELECTRON FLOW NON-CYCLICAL PHOTOPHOYPHORYLATION

produces ATP for Calvin Cycle Cyclic Electron Flow: uses PSI only produces ATP for Calvin Cycle animation

Cyclic PS I only Reaction center is P700 Electrons travel back to PS I Only ATP is produced No photolysis of water No O2 involved Predominant in bacteria Non cyclic PS II and I Reaction center is P680 Both ATP and NADPH are produced Photolysis (splitting) of water occurs O2 is by-product Predominant in green plants

End products of light reactions 1. ATP and NADPH: needed to power dark reactions 2. O2: by product released into atmosphere http://vcell.ndsu.nodak.edu/animations/photosynthesis/movie.htm

Chemiosmosis in Chloroplasts and Mitochondria Respiration and photosynthesis use chemiosmosis to generate ATP ETCs pump protons (H+) across membrane from areas of low concentration to high concentration Protons then diffuse back across membrane thru ATPsynthase to make ATP H+ reserviors for each organelle mitochondria- matrix chloroplast – lumen Mitochondria:high energy e- come from organic molecules Chloroplasts: high energy e- come from water

Thylakoid Membrane Organization Proton motive force (H+ gradient) generated by: H+ from water H+ pumped across by cytochrome Removal of H+ from stroma when NADP+ is reduced

Calvin Cycle - occurs in stroma - light independent: can occur in light or darkness, always after light rxns - occurs in stroma purpose: Carbon fixation to glucose molecule (from CO2 in atmosphere) Uses ATP and NADPH 3 Phases 1. carbon fixation 2. reduction 3. regeneration of RuBP (CO2 acceptor)

Steps of Calvin Cycle 1. Carbon fixation - 3 CO2 enters plant from atmosphere and binds with RuBP ribulose biphosphate (5 C sugar) - catalyzed by rubisco enzyme ( RuBP carboxylase) - forms unstable 6 C intermediate sugar - this splits into 2 PGA per CO2 3- phosphoglycerate molecules net: 6 PGA

Reduction (PGA to G3P) 2 steps - each PGA gets phosphate from ATP - then each molecule reacts with H from NADPH and breaks phosphate bond - net gain: 1 molecule of G3P (glyceraldehydre 3 phosphate) - 6 G3P formed, but - 1 molecule used to make sugar - 5 molecules used to regenerate RuBP 6 ATP and 6 NADPH needed to produce 1 net G3P

3 ATP needed to regenerate RuBP Regeneration of RuBP from G3P - series of reactions results in the regeneration of 3 RuBP molecules (cyclical – continues over and over again) 3 ATP needed to regenerate RuBP animation

End product of Calvin Cycle Glucose *6 turns of cycle needed to make 1 molecule of glucose* Calvin Cycle uses: 3 CO2, 9 ATP, 6 NADPH animation 1 C6H12O6 molecule = 6 CO2, 18 ATP, 12 NADPH

Evolutionary Advantages - Calvin cycle is most common pathway for carbon fixation - C3 plants: plants that fix C thru calvin cycle (because of 3 C PGA that is initially formed) - other plants fix C through alternative pathways and then release it into Calvin cycle - alternative pathways found in plants in dry hot climates - these plants use STOMATA (pores on undersurface of leaves) - major passageways thru which O2 and CO2 goes in and out - major passageways of water loss

Alternative Pathways of Carbon Fixation 1. C4 Pathway - during hottest part of day, stomata are partially closed - plants fix CO2 into 4 C compounds when CO2 is low - mesophyll: PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 (4-C) pumps CO2 to bundle sheath - bundle sheath: CO2 used in Calvin Cycle - lose less water than C3 plants - corn, sugarcane, crabgrass advantage in hot sunny areas

Alternative Pathways of Carbon Fixation, cont. CAM Pathway - Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) - stomata open at night, closed during day - night: plants take in CO2 and fix into many compounds, stored in mesophyll cells - day: light reactions supply ATP, NADPH; CO2 released from organic acids for Calvin cycle - lose less water than C3 and C4 plants - cactus, pineapples advantage in arid areas

C fixation and Calvin Cycle together C fixation and Calvin Cycle in different CELLS C fixation and Calvin Cycle at different TIMES

Factors Affecting Rate of Photosynthesis Environmental Variables 1. Light intensity/ direction of incoming light - high intensity = high rate - saturation point: levels off after certain intensity because pigments can only absorb so much light 2 Light color 3..CO2 levels - same mechanism as light 4. temperature - higher temp = higher rate unless enzymes denature 5. pH of leaf

Factors Affecting Rate of Photosynthesis Plant Variables 1. leaf color/ variegation- amount of chlorophyll 2. leaf size 3. stomata density and distribution 4. leaf age